Chapter 4.

Chemical
equation and reaction
stoichiometry

Objectives:

Write balanced chemical equation to

describe chemical reactions
From balanced equations, calculate
the moles of reactants and products
involved in each of the reactions
Determine which reactant is the
limiting reactant in reactions

Objectives

Compare the amount of substance

actually formed in a reaction (actual
yield) with the predicted amount
(theoretical yield) and determine the
percent yield
Work with sequential reactions
Use the terminology of solutions
solute, solvent, concentration
Calculate concentrations of solutions
when they are diluted

Chemical equations

Chemical reactions always involve

changing one or more substances
into one or more different
substances
In other words, chemical reactions
rearrange atoms or ions to form
other substances
Chemical equations are used to
describe chemical reactions

Chemical equations show:

(1) the substances that react,

reactants
(2) the substances formed,
products
heat
(3) the relative
amounts of the
substances involved.
CH4 + required
2O2 for some reactions
CO2 +are
2H
2O
Special conditions
indicated
by no

over the arrow

Balance chemical
equations

A balanced chemical equation

must always include the same
number of each kind of atom on
both sides of the equation.
Write equations with smallest
possible whole-number coefficients
In reactants and In products (Ex.)

Examples
C2H6O + O2

CO2 + H2O

Carbon appear in only one compound

on each side, the same is true for
hydrogen
Al + HCl

AlCl3 + H2

Exercice

(a)

Balance the following chemical

reactions:
P4 + Cl2
PCl5

(b)

RbOH + SO2

(c)

P4O10 + Ca(OH)2
H 2O

Rb2SO3 + H2O
Ca3(PO4)2 +

Calculations based on
chemical equations

Number of molecules (a balanced

chemical equation may be
interpreted on a molecular basis)
Number of moles formed
(Avogadros number)
CH4 + 2O2
CO2 + 2 H2O

6.023 x 1023

1 mol

2 mol

1 mol

2 mol

Examples

How many O2 molecules react with

30 CH4 molecules according to the
preceding equation?
How many moles of water could be
produced by the reaction of 5 mol
of methane with excess oxygen
(more than sufficient)

Mass of a reactant
required
Example

What mass of oxygen (in g) is

required to react completely with
24.0 g of CH4

What mass of CH4, in grams, is

required to react with 96.0 g of O2

Mass of a product formed

Example

Calculate the mass of CO2, in

grams, that can be produced by
burning 6.00 mol of CH4 in excess
O2

The limiting reactant

concept

The calculations were based on the

reactant that was used up first,
called the limiting reactant
Example: what mass of CO2 could
be formed by the reaction of 16.0
g of CH4 with 48.0 g of O2

Example

A fuel mixture used in the early

days of rocketry is composed of
two liquids, hydrazine (N2H4) and
N2O4, which ignite on contact to form
nitrogen gas and water vapor. How
many grams of nitrogen gas form
when 1.00X 102 g of N2H4 and
2.00X 102 g of N2O4 are mixed?

Percent yields from

chemical reactions

Theoretical yield (from a chemical

reaction) is the yield calculated by
assuming that the reaction goes to
completion
In practice we often do not obtain as
much product from a reaction as is
theoritically possible

Many reactions do not go to completion

In some cases, reactants form undesired
products (by-products)
In some cases, separation of the desired
products is so difficult that not all of the
product formed is successfully isolated

2,4 D (2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic
acid)

2,4,5 T

Actual yield: is the amount of a

specified pure product actually
obtained from a given raction
actual yield of product

Percent yield =

X 100 %
theoritical yield of product

Exercise

A 15.6-g sample of C6H6 is mixed

with excess HNO3. We can isolate
18.0 g of C6H5NO2. What is the
percent yield of C6H5NO2 in this
reaction

Sequential reactions

Often more than one reaction is

required to change starting materials
into the desired product. These are
called sequential reactions.
H3PO4 can be prepared in two-step
process

P4 + 5O2
P4O10
P4O10 + 6H2O
H3PO4

Example

In the above reaction, we allow

272 g of phosphorous to react with
excess oxygen, which forms
tetraphosphorous decoxide, P4O10,
in 89.5% yield. In the second step
reaction, a 98.6% yield of H3PO4 is
obtained. What mass of H3PO4 is
obtained?

Exercise

SiC is an important ceramic material

that is made by allowing sand SiO2
to react with powdered carbon at
high temperature. Carbon monoxide
is also formed. When 100.0 kg of
sand is processed, 51.4 kg of SiC
is recovered. What is the percent
yield of SiC from this process?

Concentrations of
solutions

A solution is a homogeneous mixture, at

the molecular level, of two or more
substances.
Solute: The dispersed (dissolved) phase
Solvent: The dispersing medium
The solutions used in the laboratory are
usually liquids, and the solvent is often
water. These are called aqueous
solutions

Percent by mass
mass of solute
x 100 %

percent solute =
mass of solution

or
mass of solute
x 100 %

percent =
mass of solute +mass of solvent

Molarity (M)

The number of moles of solute per

liter of solution
number of moles of solute
molarity =
number of liters of solution

Dilution of solutions

Recall the definition of molarity, we

have

volume (in L) x molarity = number of moles of

solute
V1M1 = V2M2

Example

Isotonic saline is a 0.15 M aqueous

solution of NaCI that simulates the total
concentration of ions found in many
cellular fluids. Its uses range from a
cleansing rinse for contact lenses to a
washing medium for red blood cells.
How would you prepare 0.80 L of
isotonic saline from a 6.0 M stock
solution?

Using solutions in
chemical reactions
Usually we carry out a reaction in a
solution, therefore we must calculate
the amounts of solutions that we
need.
Example (amount of solute)
Calculate (a) the number of moles of
H2SO4 and (b) the number of grams
of H2SO4 in 500 mL of 0.324 M H2SO4
solution

Exercise (Solution
stoichiometry) and (Volume
of solution required)

Calculate the volume in liters and

in milliliters of a 0.324 M solution of
H2SO4 required to react completely
with 2.792 g of Na2CO3.

Find the volume in liters and in

milliliters of a 0.505 M NaOH
solution required to react with 40.0
mL of 0.505 M H2SO4 solution

Exercise

What is the maximum mass of

Ni(OH)2 that could be prepared by
mixing two solutions that contain
25.9 g of NiCl2 and 10.0 g of NaOH,
respectively?

Chapter 5. Some types of

chemical reactions

Objectives:

Describe the periodic table and some

of the relationships that it summarizes
Recognize and descibe nonelectrolytes,
strong and weak electrolytes.
Recognize and classify acids, bases,
and salts
Assign oxidation number to elements,
when they are free, in compounds, or
in ions

Objectves (continue)

Name and write formulas for

common binary and ternary
inorganic compounds
Recognize oxidation-reduction
reactions and identify which species
are oxidized, reduced, oxidizing
agents, and reducing agents
Recognize and describe classes of
reactions

The periodic table: metals,

nonmetals, and metalloids

Atomic weight
Atomic number of an element is
the number of protons in the
nucleus of its atoms
Elements are arranged in the
periodic table in order of increasing
atomic number.
The properties of the elements are
periodic functions of their atomic
number

Metallic character decrease

Transition metals

Noble gases

Increase

The vertical colums are referred to

as groups or families
The horizontal rows are called
periods
Elements in a group have similar
chemical and physical properties,
and those within a period have
properties that change progressively
across the table.

Names of some common

groups

The Group IA elements (except H)

are referred to as alkaline metals
The Group IIA elements are called
alkaline earth metals
The Group VIIA elements are called
halogens (salt formers)
The Group VIIIA elements are
called noble (rare) gases

Some physical properties

of metals and nonmetals

Metals

High EC that
decreases with
increasing
temperature
High thermal
conductivity
Metallic gray or silver
luster
Almost all are solids
Malleable
Ductile

Nonmetals

Poor electrical
conductivity (except
C in graphite)
Good heat insulator
No metallic luster
Solids, liquids, or
gases
Brittle in solid state
Nonductile

Some chemical properties

of metals and nonmetals

Metals

Outer shells contain

few electrons
(usually 3 or fewer)
Form cations by
losing electrons
Form ionic
compounds with
nonmetals
Solid state
characterized by
metallic bonding

Nonmetals

Outer shells contain 4

or more electrons
Form anions by
gaining elecrtons
Form ionic compounds
with metals, and
molecular (covalent)
other compounds with
nonmetals
Covalently bonded
molecules

Metalloids (semi-metals) show some

properties that are characteristic of both
metals and nonmetals
Example: B, Si, Ge, As, Te
Many of the metalliods, such as Si, Ge, and
Sb act as semiconductors (for electronic
curcuits). Semiconductor are insulators at
lower temperatures but become conductors
at higher temperatures.