Submitted to: Ms.

Supreet Kaur
Submitted by: 11301186 (Srishti)
11301187 (Shefali)
11301188 (Shivani)
11301189 (Tamanna)

Structured Analysis
It is a set of techniques and graphical
tools that allow the analyst to develop a
new kind of system specifications that
are easily understandable to the user.

Tools for structured

analysis
Various tools that can be used for organizing
information are known as structured analysis tools.
These tools help a system analyst to document the
system specifications of a system.
These tools are

Data flow diagram (DFD)

Data dictionary
Structured English
Decision trees
Decision tables

Data flow diagram

(DFD or bubble chart or business process
diagrams)
DFD is a tool that helps in expressing the
system requirements in a simple form.
It provides a graphical representation of the
logical flow of data.
The purpose of DFD is to simplify the system
requirements.
DFD is responsible to decompose the
requirement specification in each stage of
the system analysis process.

Symbols in DFD

Square
Arrow
Circle/bubble
Open rectangle

Square
Represent the source or destination of
system data.

Arrow
Used to identify the data flow.
The arrow specifies a pipeline
through which the data flows.

Circle / Bubble
These symbols are used to represent a
process that transforms incoming data
flow into outgoing data flow.
A process can be represented by a
circle or an oval bubble.

Yourdon and Coad Process Notations Gane and Sarson Process

Notation

Open rectangle
This symbol is used to represent a
data store.

Rules for drawing DFD

1. The process must have a name and number
associated with it. The name of the process
represents the process.
2. The direction in which the data flow is
represented should be from top to bottom and
from left to right.
3. A proper numbering of processes must be
maintained. For e.g.. process1 is exploded to
further processes , which should be numbered as
1.1 , 1.2 and so on.

4 The name of the data stores , sources and

destinations should be written in capital
letters. The name of the process and data
flow must have first letter capitalised.
5. The data flow should not intersect.
6. Looping is not allowed.
7. Entities should not directly access data
stores. They should go through a process.
8. Data flows cannot be orphan data flows ,
which means that they must terminate to a
process or an entity of a data store or
another DFD.

Example
Employee
Employee Data
Salary Statement

Accounts
Department

Payroll
Processing

Updated
Data

Employee File

DFD Levels

Context Diagram
A context diagram is a top level (also
known as Level 0) data flow diagram.
It only contains one process node
(process 0) that generalizes the
function of the entire system in
relationship to external entities.

The first level DFD

The first level DFD shows the main
processes within the system.
Each of these processes can be
broken into further processes until
you reach pseudo code.

What to Avoid in DFDs

4

Processes with no outputs or

no inputs

Perform
Repair

Processes whose inputs are

obviously inadequate to yield
outputs
Connecting data stores directly
to each other

Courses

Class List

Students

Having data flows terminate at

data stores
Connecting entities to anything
other than processes

Many processes with a single

input and output (linear flow)

Payroll
Department

Employees

Process
A

Process
B

Process
C

DFD Example: Bus Garage Repairs

Buses come to a garage for repairs.
A mechanic and helper perform the repair, record the reason for the
repair and record the total cost of all parts used on a Shop Repair
Order.
Information on labor, parts and repair outcome is used for billing by the
Accounting Department, parts monitoring by the inventory management
computer system and a performance review by the supervisor.
Key process (the system): performing repairs and storing information
related to repairs
External Entities: Bus, Mechanic, Helper, Supervisor, Inventory
Management System, Accounting Department, etc.
Processes:

Record Bus ID and reason for repair

Determine parts needed
Perform repair
Calculate parts extended and total cost
Record labor hours, cost

DFD Example: Bus Garage

Repairs (contd)
Data stores:

Personnel file
Repairs file
Bus master list
Parts list

Repair order
Bus record
Parts record
Employee timecard
Invoices

Data flows:

Bus Garage Context Diagram

Bus
Fixed
mechanical
problems

Mechanical
problem
to be repaired

Helper

Labor

0
Bus
Repair
Process

Labor

Mechanic

Labor,
parts cost
details

Repair
summary
List of
parts used

Supervisor

Inventory
Management
System

Accounting

Bus Garage Diagram 0 DFD

Bus Garage Diagram 0 DFD

(contd)

Data Dictionary
(DD)
It is a structured repository of data that
defines the basic organization of a database.
It contains a set of precise and accurate
definitions of all the DFDs , data elements
and data structures.
Data dictionary includes a complete and
comprehensive definition of all the data
elements in the system.

 Data dictionary act as the source

document for specifications of all
inputs , protocols , outputs, data
structures database structures
,meta data and algorithms.
It is a data repository of all design
data about the system.

 It helps in improving communication

between a user and a system analyst.
It serves as a common database for
programmers and can also be used for
control purposes.
It helps in accessing data more
simple.

 The data items present in a data

dictionary include
Data element
The smallest unit of data that cannot be
further decomposed.

Data structures
A group of data elements that are handled as a
single unit. It contains a number of data
elements as its fields.

Data flows and data stores

Data flows are data structures in motion and
data stores are the data structures in rest.
Data stores are the locations where the data
structures are temporarily stored.

Symbols used in data

dictionary

1) =
::
equivalent to
2) + ::
Add
3) [option 1 option 2]
:: only one of the
options is used at a given time.
4) Max {component } :: highest possible
number of iterations . Component is optional
5) Min {component } :: lowest possible number
of iterations . Component is optional.
6) *comment *:: words included within
asterisks are considered as comments.

Rules for constructing data

dictionary

1. The terms used to describe the data structures

should always be in capital letters.
2. Multiple word names must be hyphenated.
3. Assigned names should be straight forward and
user oriented.
4. Every data flow, data store, data structure and
data element must have a name associated with
them.
5. A consistency check should be performed.
6. The processes must have their identification
numbers and names that must be mentioned in the
data dictionary.
7. Assumed names of the processes must be
discouraged.

Information stored in DD
Name

Formal name of the data item/control item according to

the convention used.

Alias

Any other name for the same item.

Use

Where the data/control item is used , by which

process , when and for what purpose.

Description

Standard description of the item

 A DD serves the following purposes

A summary of the documentation

A tool to reduce redundant data
A background for I/O design
A centralized control of all data in the
system
A controller of data integrity

Data Dictionary examples

Current-height =

gender =

**
*units: metres; range: 1.00-2.50*
**
*values: [M|F]*

As both are elementary data, no composition need be shown, though

an explanation of the relevant units/symbols is needed
order = customer-name + shipping-address + 1{item}10
means that an order always has a customer name and a shipping
address and has between 1 and 10 items

Decision tree
Similar to DFDs , a tree used for
graphic representation for processes.
Decision trees can be used to verify
logic in problems that involve few
complex decisions.
Its limitation is a lack of information
due to its structure.

Root
Node

Leaf Node

Set of possible
answers

Leaf Node

Set of possible
answers

Structured English
It uses logical construction and imperative
sentences that are designed to carry out
instructions for actions.
In structured English , decisions are made
using if-then-else statements.
It consists of

Sequences of instructions (Action statements)

Decisions (if-else)
Loops (repeat-until)
Case
Groups Of Instructions

Some Acceptable Verbs

GET/READ
PUT/DISPLAY/WRITE
FIND
ADD
SUBTRACT
MULTIPLY
DIVIDE
COMPUTE
DELETE
VALIDATE
MOVE
REPLACE
SET
SORT

An example

Calculate Tax Rate - Process Specification in Structured

English
IF goods are Taxable
DO CASE
CASE goods-type = Food
set tax-rate to 0
CASE goods-type = Vehicle
set tax-rate to 20
CASE goods-type = Clothes
set tax-rate to 40
OTHERWISE
set tax-rate to 15
ENDCASE
ELSE
write Tax not applicable to Results data store
ENDIF

Decision Table
It a compact way to represent complicated
logic.
It is a matrix that contains rows and
columns representing conditions and
actions.
Decision tables are used in situations where
complex branching routines are required.

 Used when the process result is

based around several different
variables and the logic gets too
complex for other methods
To create:

List all the relevant variables

(inputs/conditions) and all the
relevant actions on the left of the
table
Number all the possible combination
of variables on the top of the table
Generally use binary (True/False)
variables
Set a rule for each possible result

i.e. certain combinations of inputs imply

certain actions

 Decision tables are divided into four

quadrants.

Conditions

Condition alternatives

Actions

Action entries

 Conditions

These are at the upper left corner in the table.

The questionnaire is listed in the conditions

Condition alternatives

This section is at the upper right corner and contains

answers to the questions that were asked in the
conditions column.

Actions

This section is at the lower left corner in the table and

it outlines the action that is required to perform in
order to meet each condition.

Action entries

This section is at the lower right corner in the table.

It indicates the appropriate action , resulting from the
answers to the conditions in the condition quadrant.

Example of
conditions/actions
Condition

Press Cancel button

Press Answer button

Ready to receive light
goes on

Ready to receive button

goes out

Waiting for
Call

Action

Condition

Idle

Condition

Action
End of Call or tape runs out

Incoming call detected

Answering
Call

Condition

Example
1

Goods are taxable

Goods type = Clothes

Goods type = Food

Goods type = Vehicles

Goods type = Other

Set tax rate = 0

Set tax rate = 20

Set tax rate = 40
Set tax rate = 15
Write tax not applicable

X
X
X

Rules for constructing

decision table
1. A name should be given to each decision that has
to be written at the top left of the table.
2. The logic should be independent of the sequence in
which the condition rules were written , but the
actions take place in the order in which the events
occur.
3. There should be a proper usage of consistent and
standardized language.
4. Duplication of terms should be avoided to the
maximum extent.

Input /output design

Input design

The i/p design of the system must attempt to

reduce the data requirements.
Avoid capturing unnecessary data such as constant
and system computable data.
The i/p design must avoid processing delays during
data entry.
The i/p design must avoid data entry errors.
The i/p design must keep the process simple and
easy to use.

 i/p layout contain the following items.

Headings and date of data entry

Data heading and value
Data type and width of the column
Initials of data entry operator

Output design
Following are the activities that are
executed in the output design stage
Identification of the specific outputs to
meet the information requirements
Selection of methods required for presenting
information
Designing of reports , formats or other
documents that act as carrier of information.

Objectives of o/p design

The o/p design should provide information
about the past , present or future events.
The o/p design should indicate important
events , opportunities, and problems.
The o/p design should produce some action
to the transaction.
e.g. when the telephone bill is received , a
receipt is printed.

Presentation of o/p
The o/p can be presented in tabular
or in graphical form.
e.g.. tabular format
Serial number

Item code

Quantity ordered

 Graphical format
pie chart

bar chart

File design
Database design
A system designer must keep the following
points.
All the data tables and record types are identified.
The key fields for each table is identified.
The data type and the width of each field are
determined.
The data tables are normalized.
Data dictionary is properly maintained.

Design procedure
Data entry procedures

These procedures are designed for data entry, such as the

data entry sequence.

Run-time procedures

Here an action is to be performed by the users to achieve

the intended results

Error-handling procedures

These procedures help the users in detecting and rectifying

errors.

Security and backup procedures

These procedures provide information regarding the actions

performed , in order to protect a system against any damage.

s/w documenting procedures

These procedures provide programmers with instructions on

how to document the programs.