Airfield Performance Analysis

The weight at which an

aircraft can take-off or land
at any particular airfield
might be constrained by
airfield physical layout, the
aircraft design, runway
loading limitation,
environmental constrains or
ambient conditions

Airfield Performance Analysis

Runway: A number of important
definitions exist for runway lengths, and
we must distinguish between those
distances which are designated as
available and which are required for a
specific take-off.
-Take-off Distance (TOD) required to
enable the aircraft to start its roll from
brake-release, pass through the required
speed, lift and clear an altitude of 35 feet
at the end of the runway

Airfield Performance Analysis

-Acceleration & Stop Distance (ASD)
required which, for a given weight, is the
distance necessary to ensure that the
aircraft can come to stand safely on the
runway if the take-off is aborted
-Finally, the Take-Off Run (TOR) is the
distance from brake-release point up to a
point halfway between lift-off to the 35
feet point.
The Take-off weight of the aircraft must
be such as the TOD, ASD & TOR required
must be equivalent to the TOD, ASD &
TOR available

Airfield Performance Analysis

Obstacles: An aircraft take off from a
runway it is likely, at some stage, to pass
over obstacles in the flight path. These
obstacles, whether they be building or
mountains, may impinge upon the
allowable take-off weight which is
calculated according to the ambient
conditions. If obstacles are present the
runway length must be artificially
reduced in order to ensure that aircrafts
weight is such that a better climb
performance can be achieved to clear the
obstacles

Airfield Performance Analysis

Ambient conditions: The efficiency of an
aircraft & its engines is a function of the
density of the air. The less dense the air,
the less efficient the aircraft. Air density
decreases as altitude and temperature
increase, so at hot or high airfield an
aircraft needs longer distance to take-off.
Some of the classic problem airfield are
in Mexico, Madrid, Nairobi, Johannesburg,
Addis Ababa, Harare, Sanaa, Quito & La
Paz

Airfield Performance Analysis

Wet & Dry conditions: Standing water on a
runway will obviously impede the progress of an
aircraft across the surface. Energy that could
have been used to accelerate the aircraft is
dissipated and braking distance expand. The
practical effect is that the required runway
distances are increased
wind: A head wind reduces the acceleration
distance required because the aircraft can takeoff at a lower ground speed. A tailwind has
opposite effect and acceleration distance is
increased. A pilot must take into consideration
the effect of the wind component for a real takeoff case.

Airfield Performance Analysis

Runway Loading: There are several methods used
to assess runway loading but most common is the
ACN/PCN method, which has been adopted by
ICAO & their member nations. A runway is
assigned a Pavement Classification Number (PCN)
that describes the bearing strength of a
pavement for unrestricted operations. An aircraft
has an Aircraft Classification Number (ACN) that
expresses the relative impact of an aircraft on a
pavement of a specified standard subgrade.
In order for an aircraft to be allowed to use a
runway, its ACN should be less than the runways
PCN

Airfield Characteristics That

Affect
Takeoff
Airport elevation

Airport

Obstacles

temperature
Wind

Stopway/clearway
Length
Plus many others

Slope

En-Route Performance Analysis

We need to undertake, in EnRoute Performance Analysis, a
simulation of performance on
the network in order to
measure two principal
parameters: the amount of
payload that can be carried,
and the amount of fuel burned

En-Route Performance Analysis

Temperatures: it influences engine performance &
therefore the rate of climb of the aircraft. More
energy must be expended by Engines in order to
lift the aircraft to higher altitude in a condition
where Temperature higher than ISA (International
Standard Atmosphere). At sea level, ISA is
equivalent to 15 degree Celsius.
Winds: it has dramatic effect on aircraft en-route
performance. In the case of a headwind, the air
distance becomes greater than the ground
distance and more fuel is consumed, and in the
case of tailwind the opposite is true. For each
performance calculation we need to determine
the Equivalent Still-Air Distance (ESAD) for the
mission

En-Route Performance Analysis

Flight & Block time: The block time
describes the time taken between block
off and block on in other words,
engine star-up, ground maneuvers or taxi
time are included. The flight time
incorporates the mission time from start
of take-off run to the landing of the
aircraft. The distinction is important as
one economic calculation, maintenance
cost, is based upon flight times whereas
the others are based on block time.

Typical Mission Profile

There must be fuel on board for all segments
Mission

Step cruise

Climb

Descent

Approach
and land

Takeoff
Taxi out

Distance
Flight time and fuel
Block time and fuel
Most flights reach their destinations as planned. However.

Taxi in

En-Route Performance Analysis

Reserve Policies: The
purpose of a reserve policy
is, naturally, to ensure that
aircraft is carrying enough
fuel to reach another
airfield in the event of the
destination airfield being
unavailable.

Typical Reserve Profile

There must be fuel on board for all segments
there is always a chance of bad weather at the destination, enroute thunderstorms,
unexpected headwinds, or runway intrusions.

Reserve
Cruise

Percent
Flight
Time or
Fuel

Climb

Descent

Contingency

Flight to alternate
Hold

Missed
approach
Approach and land

En-Route Performance Analysis

Selection of alternatives: Diverting to alternative
airfield usually occurs owing to poor weather condition,
but may also be due to an obstruction on the runway.
The longer the distance from the intended destination
to the alternative, the higher becomes the amount of
fuel to be loaded at departure. A long alternate means
that fuel burn is increased, as the aircraft must burn
fuel to carry fuel.
Fuel requirement for a typical flight profile:
Segment or stage fuel- the fuel burnt during climb,
cruise and descent
Trip fuel- Fuel brunt during take-off, climb, cruise,
descent and approach.
Block fuel- Fuel burnt during trip, taxi-out and taxi-in
Total fuel loaded- Fuel burnt (Block Fuel) +
allowance+ diversion
(allowance is usually 5% of the trip fuel)

En-Route Performance Analysis

Tankering :There are some airfield where
either fuel supplies are unreliable or there
is no fuel supply available at all e.g.
Lhasa. Sufficient fuel has to be uplifted at
the departure point to return from the
destination. Carrying fuel for an onward
stage obviously imposes some penalties
structural limitation & payload. There is
an economic balance to be struck
between the price difference of fuel
between the origin and destination, the
value of the payload surrendered, and
the cost of fuel burned to carry additional
fuel.

The Magic of Flight.