CHAPTER 4

DIRECTING
LEADERSHIP

Managers Versus Leaders

Managers
Are appointed to their
position.
Can influence people
only to the extent of the
formal authority of their
position.
Do not necessarily have
the skills and
capabilities to be
leaders.

Leaders
Are appointed or emerge
from within a work
group.
Can influence other
people and have
managerial authority.
Do not necessarily have
the skills and
capabilities to be
managers.

Leadership is the process of influencing a

group toward the achievement of goals.
172

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Traits Theories

Research focused on identifying personal

characteristics that differentiated leaders
from non-leaders was unsuccessful.
Later research on the leadership process
identified seven traits associated with successful
leadership:
Drive, the desire to lead, honesty and integrity, selfconfidence, intelligence, job-relevant knowledge, and
extraversion.

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Behavioral Theories
Identified three leadership
styles:
Autocratic style:
centralized authority, low
participation
Democratic style:
involvement, high
participation, feedback
Laissez faire style: hands174

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The
Manageri
al Grid
Source: Reprinted by permission of
Harvard Business Review. An exhibit
from Breakthrough in Organization
Development by Robert R. Blake,
Jane S. Mouton, Louis B. Barnes, and
Larry E. Greiner, November
December 1964, p. 136. Copyright
1964 by the President and Fellows of
Harvard College. All rights reserved.

175

Likert Management
System
System

1: ExploitativeAuthoritative
System 2: BenevolentAuthoritative
System 3: Consultative
System 4: Participative

Contingency Theories of
Leadership

The Fiedler Model

Stated that the success of leadership styles
depend on matching the leaders styles with the
conditions of a situations
Assumptions:
A certain leadership style should be most effective in
different types of situations.
Leaders do not readily change leadership styles.
Matching the leader to the situation or changing the
situation to make it favorable to the leader is required.

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Contingency Theories (contd)

The Fiedler Model

Least-preferred co-worker (LPC) questionnaire
Determines leadership style by measuring responses
to 18 pairs of contrasting adjectives.
High score: a relationship-oriented leadership style
Low score: a task-oriented leadership style

Situational factors in matching leader to the

situation:
Leader-member relations
Task structure
Position power
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Findings of the Fiedler Model

Exhibit 17.4

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Contingency Theories (contd)

Hersey and Blanchards Situational

Leadership Theory (SLT)
Argues that successful leadership is achieved by
selecting the right leadership style which is
contingent on the level of the followers
readiness.
Acceptance: leadership effectiveness depends on
whether followers accept or reject a leader.
Readiness: the extent to which followers have the
ability and willingness to accomplish a specific task.

Leaders must relinquish control over and contact

with followers as they become more competent.
1710

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Contingency Theories (contd)

Hersey and Blanchards Situational

Leadership Theory (SLT)
Creates four specific leadership styles
incorporating Fiedlers two leadership dimensions:
Telling: high task-low relationship leadership
Selling: high task-high relationship leadership
Participating: low task-high relationship leadership
Delegating: low task-low relationship leadership

1711

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Contingency Theories (contd)

Hersey and Blanchards Situational

Leadership Theory (SLT)
Posits four stages follower readiness:
R1: followers are unable and unwilling
R2: followers are unable but willing
R3: followers are able but unwilling
R4: followers are able and willing

1712

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Hersey and Blanchards Situational

Leadership Model

Source: Reprinted with permission from the Center for Leadership

Studies. Situational Leadership is a registered trademark of the Center
for Leadership Studies. Escondido, California. All rights reserved.

Exhibit 17.5

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Contingency Theories

Path-Goal Model
States that the leaders job is to assist his or her
followers in attaining their goals and to provide
direction or support to ensure their goals are
compatible with organizational goals.
Leaders assume different leadership styles at
different times depending on the situation:

Directive leader
Supportive leader
Participative leader
Achievement oriented leader

1714

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CHAPTER 4
DIRECTING
MOTIVATION

DEFINITION
Motivation is a process which begins with a
physiological or psychological need or
deficiency which triggers behaviour or a drive
that is aimed at a goal or an incentive.

IMPORTANCE
PRODUCE PRODUCTIVE EMPLOYEE
EMPHASIZE QUALITY
BRING GOOD ALTERNATIVE RESULT

MASLOWS HIERARCHY OF
NEEDS THEORY

Frederick Herzbergs Two Factor

Theory

His research emphasized job

enrichment (depth) rather than job
enlargement
Job context (hygiene factors)
needed to be optimal to prevent
job dissatisfaction. These factors
(according to Herzberg) did not
motivate.
Job content (motivators) factors
that did lead to motivation
Money (according to Herzberg)
could motivate if it was seen as a
reward for accomplishment; but if
money was given without regard
for merit, then it was a hygiene
factor.
Frederick Herzberg

Motivation and Hygiene Factors

HYGIENE FACTORS
ENVIRONMENT

MOTIVATION
WHAT THEY DO

Policies and Administration

Achievement

Supervision

Recognition for
Accomplishment

Working Conditions
Interpersonal Relations
Money, Status, Security

Challenging Work
Increased Responsibility
Growth and Development

Herzbergs Two-Factor Theory

Extrinsic factors
Factors within the job
context:

Intrinsic factors
Factors within the job
content:

Pay

Achievement

Status

Increased responsibility

Working conditions

Recognition

Dissatisfiers
Hygiene factors

Satisfiers
Motivators

A Comparison of the Content Theories

Maslow
Maslow
(need
(need hierarchy)
hierarchy)
Self-actualization
Self-actualization

Higher
order
needs

Esteem
Esteem
Belongingness,
Belongingness,
social,
social, and
and love
love

Safety
Safety and
and security
security

Herzberg
Herzberg
(two-factor
(two-factor theory)
theory)
The
The work
work itself
itself
Responsibility
Responsibility
Advancement
Advancement
Growth
Motivators Growth
Achievement
Achievement
Recognition
Recognition
Quality
Quality of
of interinterpersonal
personal relations
relations
among
among peers,
peers, with
with
supervisors,
supervisors, with
with
subordinates
subordinates

Hygiene
conditions Job security
Job security

Basic
needs
Physiological
Physiological

Working
Working conditions
conditions
Salary
Salary

Theory X and Theory Y

Douglas McGregor

Taught psychology at MIT.

At Antioch College, McGregor
found that his classroom
teaching of human relations
did not always work in
practice.
From these experiences, his
ideas evolve and lead him to
recognize the influence of
assumptions we make about
people and our managerial
style.

Theory X

Theory Y

Work is inherently distasteful to

most people.
Most people are not ambitious,
have little desire for
responsibility, and prefer to be
directed.
Most people have little capacity
for creativity in solving
organizational problems.
Motivation occurs only at the
physiological and safety levels.
Most people must be closely
controlled and often coerced to
achieve organizational
objectives.

Work is as natural as play, if the

conditions are favorable.
Self-control is often
indispensable in achieving
organizational goals.
The capacity for creativity in
solving organizational problems
is widely distributed in the
population.
Motivation occurs at the social,
esteem, and self-actualization
levels, as well as physiological
and security levels.
People can be self-directed and
creative at work if properly
motivated.

CHAPTER 4
DIRECTING
Communication

Communication and
Management

Communication
The sharing of information between two or more
individuals or groups to reach a common
understanding.

16
28

Communication and
Management

Importance of Good Communication

Increased efficiency in new technologies and
skills
Improved quality of products and services
Increased responsiveness to customers
More innovation through communication

16
29

Verbal & Nonverbal

Communication

Verbal Communication
The encoding of messages into words, either
written or spoken

Nonverbal
The encoding of messages by means of facial
expressions, body language, and styles of
dress.

16
30

Form of communication

Top to bottom
communication
Bottom to top
communication
Horizontal
communication
Cross communication

Formal

Gossip
Single strand
Probability
Cluster

Informal

The Communication
Process

Phases of the Communication Process:

Transmission phase in which information is shared
by two or more people.
Feedback phase in which a common
understanding is assured.

16
32

The Communication Process

Figure 16.1

16
33

Barriers to Effective
Communication
Messages that are unclear, incomplete, difficult to
understand
Messages sent over the an inappropriate medium
Messages with no provision for feedback
Messages that are received but ignored
Messages that are misunderstood
Messages delivered through automated systems
that lack the human element

16
34

We listen to reply, rather

listen to understand