VISCOUS EFFECTS, THE BOUNDARY LAYER AND

FLOE SEPARATION
Skin Friction Air resistance and it is the tangential component of
force on the surface of a body due to the friction between the two
particles.
Stream line and Turbulent flow A stream line flow may be defined
as a smooth non turbulent flow. A turbulent flow is defined as a flow
characterized by turbulence, that is, a flow in which the velocity varies
erratically in both magnitude and direction with time.
Laminar flow The word laminar is derived from the latin word
lamina meaning a thin plate of metal or some other material.
Laminar flows employs, the concept that air is flowing in thin sheets or
layers close to the surface of a wing with no disturbance between the
layers of air.
Boundary Layer A boundary layer is that layer of air adjacent to the
airfoil surface. The cause of the boundary layer is the friction between
the surface of the wing and the air.
Laminar Boundary Layer Is the laminar boundary layers the flow is
steady and smooth. As a result, the layer is very thin and so the form
drag is very small. Also, the velocity gradient at the walls through
large enough to give significant viscous stress is yet only moderate, so
that the skin friction, though not negligible, is also very small.

The rubbing of the boundary layer on the flat plate gives rise to
friction forces of: friction drag. The skin friction drag coefficient for
one side of a plate in laminar flow is given by:

Turbulent Boundary Layer In a turbulent boundary layer, the flow

is unsteady and not smooth, but eddying.
When the flow is transitioned to turbulent flow, the boundary layer
thickness will be increased. In fact, this phenomenon is often used to
determine the location of the transition region. The boundary layer
thickness can be determined by:

The skin friction drag coefficient for a flat plate can be calculated with
formula:

Critical Raynolds Number Experimentally value for which when

the values of R.N. less than critical, the flow is smooth or laminar; for
values greater than the critical R.N., the flow is turbulent.
Transition takes place on a flat plate at point x determined by:

For air increases with temperature and can be calculated by the

following approximate formula for the standard atmosphere.

Or

Example # 1: Two plates, one having 6 ft span and 3 ft chord, the

other having 9ft span and 6ft chord are placed in different airstream.
The free stream velocity for the smaller plate is 100ft per sec. It is
found that the total skin friction drag for the two plate is the same.
Find the airspeed for the larger plate. Assume the laminar flow at
standard sea level conditions.

Large plate
Small
plate

Example # 2: An airplane is flying at a density altitude of 15,000ft.

At an ambient temperature a -39F. If the wing chord is 6ft and the
equivalent airspeed is 200knots. What is the overall Raynolds
number of the wing?

WIND TUNNEL
A device for testing aircraft and its force components in a controlled
airstream under laboratory conditions.
TYPES OF LOW-SPEED WIND TUNNELS
OPEN-CIRCUIT WIND TUNNELS

CLOSED CIRCUIT TUNNEL

Advantages of Closed circuit with comparison with

Open Circuit Tunnels

1.) Power Requirement for a given speed is lower.

2.) Particulate matter can be contained within the circuit.
3.) Noise is significantly lower.
4.) Laboratory air movement (air vents, doors, windows,
etc.) does not affect wind tunnel flow.
5.) Air entering the test section is free of laboratory dust.
6.) Fan blades are not as vulnerable to damage from
model failure.

Disadvantages of Closed circuit with Open

Circuit Tunnels

1.) Cost is generally three times greater for a given test

section size.
2.) Air supply is recycled which can be prohibitive when working with
combustion engines.
3.) Footprint is much larger and requires more
overall space.
4.) Increasing air temperature can become an issue during prolonged
use.

FORCES AND MOTION OF AIRPLANE

UNDER TESTING
1.) Lift
2.) Drag
3.) Side Force
4.) Pitching Moment
5.) Yawing Movement
6.) Rolling Movement

Importance

of
Used in comparison on flow pattern of on theorem bodies which are
geometrically similar but not in dimension.

Flow pattern similarity at a particular point

1.) Magnitude of velocity at constant proportion.

2.) Direction of flow is the same.
3.) Both bodies must be oriented or positioned in
similar altitudes.
4.) Both bodies must be positioned at the same angle
of attack.

Example # 1: Find the Raynold Number for an airplane wing 4ft

chord, moving at 130mph through standard atmosphere.

Example # 2: Find the Raynold Number for an airplane wing with 3ft
6inches chord moving at 180mph through standard air.

Example # 3: Find the Raynold Number for an airplane wing, 4ft

chord, moving at 150mph. Air is +40C, barometer,21in Hg.

Example # 4: Find the velocity at which test should be run in a wind

tunnel on a model wing of 4in chord in order that the Raynold Number
shall be the same as for a wing with 4 ft chord at 100mph. Air under
standard conditions in both cases.

Example # 5: In a variable density wind tunnel, what pressure should

test be run on a model with a 3in. chord, air velocity being 60mph in
order that the Raynold Number shall be the same as for the full size
wing of 4ft chord, moving at 100mph through the air? Air
temperatures are the same in each case.

Variable Density Wind Tunnel

A wind tunnel in which the air density can be increased by means of
compressed air.
Flat Plates
Flat plates perpendicular to the airstream

Example# 1: What is the total force of a 45mph wind on a hangar

door 40ft by 25ft?

Example # 2: What is the force against the side of the building 70ft
long and 40ft high in a 90mph wind?

Example # 3: What force is required to push a flat plate, 3ft by 2ft at

a speed of 35 fps in a direction perpendicular to its surface?

Example # 4: An auto windshield is 40in wide by 15in high and is

vertical. What is the force against the windshield at 60mph?

Curved Deflecting Surfaces

The Resultant of these two components is


Example
# 1: A stream of air 50 ft wide and 10 ft high is moving
horizontally at a speed of 60mph. What is the magnitude of these
force required to deflect it movement 4downward without loss in
speed?


Example
# 2: A stream of air 72 sq ft in cross section is moving
horizontally at a speed of 100mph. What force is required to deflect
it downward 10 without loss in speed?

Example # 3: A stream of air 60ft wide and 8ft high is moving

horizontally at a speed of 75mph. What force is required to deflect it
downward 8deg?

Example # 4: A stream of air 100sq.ft. in cross section is moving

horizontally at a speed of 150mph. It strikes tangentially against the
interior wall of semi-circular cylinder so that it is deflected through
180. What is total force against the cylinder?

AIRFOIL THEORY

Airfoil-is a streamline body which when set at a suitable angle of

attack produces more lift than drag. Any surface such as an
airplane wing, aileron, elevator.

DEFINITION OF AIRFOIL GEOMETRY

Mean Camber Line is the line joining the
midpoints between the upper and lower
surfaces of an airfoil and measured normal to
the mean camber line.
Chord Line Is the line joining the end
points of the mean camber line.
Thickness Is the height of
measured normal to the chordline.
Thickness Ratio Is the
thickness to the chord ratio,.

profile

maximum

Camber Is the maximum distance of the

mean camber line from the chordline.
Leading Edge Radius Is the radius of a
circle tangent to the upper and lower
surfaces, with its center located on a tangent
to the mean camber line drawn through the
leading edge of this line.

DEFINITION OF SECTION FORCES

AND MOMENT
FACTORS AFFECTING THE AERODYNAMIC
FORCES
1.) Velocity of air, V
2.) Air density,
3.) Characteristic area or size, S
4.) Coefficient of dynamic viscosity,
5.) Speed of sound,(compressibility effect),

FORMULAS
Lift Force

Where:

Drag Force

Pitching Moment

Important Airfoil Characteristics

The following relationship are of fundamental importance to airplane
design and airplane analysis.

The linear portion of the lift

mathematically by the equation.

curve

can

be

represented

Where
a or is the lift curve slope and the angle of attack for zero
lift. The theoretical value of a is 2 per radian.

AIRFOIL PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION

The
pressure distribution is normally expressed in terms of the
pressure coefficient,

At low speeds, according

Bernoulli Equation,

to

the

incompressible

Critical Pressure Coefficient

Critical Pressure
Is the local pressure at the point in the air flow where M=1.0 and the
velocity is critical.

Critical Velocity

Example # 1: An Airplane is flying at 480mph at an altitude of

30,000ft.What is the critical Velocity?

Example # 2: An Airplane is flying at 500knots in air at -50F. What is

the critical Velocity?

Example # 3: What is the critical value of pressure and pressure

coefficient for an airplane flying at 500knots in air at 25F.

Example # 4: An airfoil has a lift curve slope of 6.3 per radian and
angle of attack zero lift of -2. At what angle of attack will the airfoil
developed a lift of 140 lb/ft at 100mph under standard sea level
condition. Assume c=8ft.

NACA AIRFOILS DESIGNATION

4 DIGIT AIRFOILS: Example NACA 4412
4=Camber 0.04c
4=Position of the camber at 0.4c from L.E.
12=Maximum thickness 0.12c
5-DIGIT AIRFOILS: Example NACA 23012
2=camber 0.02c
=design lift coefficient is 0.15 times the first digit for
30=position
this seriesof camber at =0.15c
12=Maximum thickness 0.12c

NACA AIRFOILS DESIGNATION

-SERIES AIRFOILS: Example NACA 653-421

6=series designation
5=min. pressure at 0.5c
3=The drag coefficient is near its minimum value over a range of
lift coefficient of 0.3 above and below the design lift coefficient.
4=design lift coefficient 0.4
21=max. thickness 0.21c

NACA AIRFOILS DESIGNATION

7-SERIES AIRFOILS: Example NACA 747A315

7=series designation
4=favourable pressure gradient on the upper surface from L.E.
to 0.7c at the design lift coefficient.
7=favourable pressure gradient on the lower surface from L.E.
to 0.7c at the design lift coefficient.
A=a serial letter to distinguish different section having the
same numerical designation but different mean line or
thickness distribution.
3=design lift coefficient 0.3
15=max thickness 0.15c

Example # 1: NACA 4412, c=100cm, find the camber, position of

camber and max. thickness.

Example # 2: NACA 23015,c=48 in., find the camber, position of

camber and max. thickness.