FUNDAMENTALS OF

AERODYNAMICS

AERODYNAMICS
AERODYNAMICS IS THE STUDY OF THE MOTION OF AIR
AND OF THE FORCES ON SOLIDS IN MOTION RELATIVE
TO THE AIR.

THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD ATOSPHERE

The atmosphere is the mechanical mixture of gases surrounding the earth.

ATMOSPHERIC CONSTITUENTS

Nitrogen
Oxygen
Argon
Carbon Dioxide
Hydrogen
Helium
Neon
and

78.03%
20.99%
0.94%
0.03%
0.01%
0.004%
0.0012% and small amount of water vapor
other gases.

FOUR LAYERS OF EARTHS ATMOSPHERE

Trophosphere
Stratosphere
Ionosphere
Exosphere

STANDARD VALUES FOR AIR AT SEA LEVEL

Pressure

Density

Temperature

Coefficient of Dynamic Viscosity

REGIONS OF THE EARTHS ATMOSPHERE

Tropopause: Going upward from the surface, it is the point where air ceases to cool
with height, and becomes almost completely dry.
Sea Level: is a measure of the average height of the ocean's surface (such as the
halfway point between the mean high tide and the mean low tide)

SEA LEVEL UP TO TROPOPAUSE (11 Km, 36,080 ft)

1. TEMPERATURE VARIATION UP TO TROPOPAUSE

Where:

2. PRESSURE VARIATION UP TO
TROPOPAUSE

Where:

3.DENSITY VARIATION UP TO TROPOPAUSE

Where:

ABOVE TROPOPAUSE (11Km) up to STRATOPAUSE (32Km,

104960 ft)

1. TEMPERATURE VARIATION ABOVE TROPOPAUSE (11Km) up to

STRATOPAUSE (32Km, 104960 ft)

2. PRESSURE VARIATION ABOVE TROPOPAUSE (11Km) up to STRATOPAUSE

(32Km, 104960 ft)
English System

Where:

2. PRESSURE VARIATION ABOVE TROPOPAUSE (11Km) up to STRATOPAUSE

(32Km, 104960 ft)
Metric System

Where:

3. DENSITY VARIATION ABOVE TROPOPAUSE (11Km) up to STRATOPAUSE

(32Km, 104960 ft)
English System

Where:

3. DENSITY VARIATION ABOVE TROPOPAUSE (11Km) up to STRATOPAUSE

(32Km, 104960 ft)
Metric System

Where:

ALTEMETERS
Is a pressure gauge which indicates an altitude in the standard
atmosphere corresponding to the measured pressure.
Pressure

altitude,
Is the altitude given by an altimeter set to
29.92Hg
Density

altitude,
Is the altitude corresponding to a given density in the standard
atmosphere.
Temperature

altitude,
Is the altitude corresponding to a given temperature in the standard
atmosphere.

Example # 1-Calculate the pressure, density and temperature at 11km and

15km altitudes in the standard atmosphere.
For 11km

For 15 km

Example # 2:Find the pressure and Temperature at an altitude where the dens
in
Standard atmosphere.
Given:
Standard atmosphere
Required:
P and T
To checked if the density is at any level between Tropopause up to
Stratopause
@= 11km

=
=0.362
Note: Density must be lower than 0.362 for us to use the formula of
Pressure and Density variation with altitude above Tropopause up to
Stratopause

Solution:
To get the Pressure

ln=ln

For
Temperature

Example # 3:On a hot day, the measured temperature and pressure are 38C
and 29.0 in Hg, respectively. Calculate the density and the density ratio.
Given:

Required:

Solution:

Example # 4: An altimeter reads 11,200 ft when the temperature is 39F. What is the air
density and what is the standard altitude?

BASIC AERODYNAMICS PRINCIPLES AND APPLICATION

Continuity Equation Conservation of mass along a stream tube, such air in a wind tunnel.

Where:

PRINCIPLE OF MASS CONSERVATION (LAW OF CONTINUITY)

The mass of fluids passing one section in one sec must be the same as the mass of fluid
passing any other section in one second.

For incompressible fluid, =constant (M<0.3 approximately)

Differential form:

For compressible fluid, constant (M0.3 approximately)

Differential form:

Example # 1: A pipe is tapering in size, diminishing by 0.1 square ft per foot run. What is
the change in velocity per meter run where the pipe is 4 square ft in cross section? If the
velocity there is 90 ft per second, is the velocity increasing or decreasing?

To get multiply both sides by

Given:

Required:

Solution:

Velocity is increasing

Example # 2: A circular pipe, 30 meters long, gradually tapers from 0.9 m diameter at one
end to 0.6 meter in diameter at the other. Fluid is flowing from the bigger toward the
smaller. What is the rate of increase in velocity at the entrance if the velocity there is 25
meter per second?
Given:

Solution:

Example # 3: Air having the standard sea level density has a velocity of 100 fps at a
section of a wind tunnel, at another section having an area half as great at that at the first
section the flow velocity is 400mph. What is the density at the second section?
Given:

Required:

Solution:

Example # 4:Water is flowing through a smooth pipe whose diameter is decreasing. At one
location, the diameter is 12 cm. If the velocity there is 10 meter per second. Find the mass
flow rate. At a station further down the pipe, the diameter is 4cm. Find the velocity at this
section.
Given:

Required:

Solution:

BERNOULLI EQUATION
Conservation of energy along a streamline
BERNOULLIS PRINCIPLE
State that as the air velocity increases, the pressure decreases; as the air velocity
decreases the pressure increases.
For Incompressible fluid, =constant (M<0.3 approximately)

The isentropic equation of state is not needed

The simplified form of Bernoulli's equation can be summarised in the following

memorable word equation.

Where:

Application: Definition of equivalent airspeed

Where:

For True Airspeed

Where:

For Compressible fluid, constant (M0.3 approximately)

OR

The Isentropic of State can be used

Isentropic Process-A process which is both Adiabatic and Reversible.
Adiabatic Process-A process which no heat added or taken away.
Reversible Process- A process in which no frictional or other dissipative effects occur.

Where:

The speed of sound is given by:

Example # 1: A horizontal pipe, 1ft in diameter, tapers gradually to 8 in. in diameter. If the
flow is 500 cu ft of water per minute, what is the difference between the pressures at the
two sections?
Given:

Required:

Solution:

Example # 2: Water flows through a horizontal pipe at a velocity of 50 ft per second. Owing
to the pipe gradually expanding to a larger size, the velocity decreases to 35 ft per sec. What
is the difference between the pressures at two points?
Given:

Required:

Solution:

Example # 3: The diameter of a horizontal tube is 4 in., in which tetrabromoethane (spec.

grav.=3) is flowing at the rate of 0.50 cu ft per sec. The pressure is 30 lb per sq in(gage). If
the tube gradually decreases to 3 in. in diameter, what is the pressure there?
Given:

Required:

Solution:

Example # 4:Alcohol (s.g.=0.80) is flowing through a horizontal pipe, which is 0.254m in

diameter with a velocity of 12.2 meter per second. At a smaller section of the pipe, there is
41.5KPa less pressure. Assuming that the flow is smooth. What is the diameter there?
Given:

Required:

Solution:

Example # 5:Air is flowing horizontally at a speed of 100mph through a duct 4 sq ft in cross

section. The duct gradually narrows down to a throat section. If a U tube shows a difference
in pressure between the throat and main section of 7 in of water, what is the cross sectional
area of the throat? (Assume that the air is non-compressible and has a density of 0.002377
slugs per cu ft.).
Given:

Required:

Solution:

Example # 6: A horizontal water pipe is reduced in size from 18 in in diameter at point A

to 6 in in diameter at B. The flow in the pipe is 10 cu ft per sec, and the pressure at A is
20 lb per sq in. If it is assumed that there is no loss in energy due to friction, what is the
pressure at B?
Given:

Required:

Solution:

Example # 7:A horizontal pipe line enlarges from a diameter of 6in at point A to a diameter
of 12in at point B. The flow of water is 20 cu ft per sec, and the pressure at A is 10 lb per sq
in. What is the pressure at B?
Given:

Required: