PHYSICS PROJECT

WORK FOR
ANNUAL EXAM
2009-10

MADE BY :1. AMIT KUMAR

2. ARJUN VIJJAN
3. AKASH THAPA
4. APPU PRASAD

PROPERTIES
OF
ELASTICITY

Elasticity is the ability of a

material to return to its original
shape and size after being
stretched, compressed, twisted or
bent. Elastic deformation (change
of shape or size) lasts only as long
as a deforming force is applied to
the object, and disappears once
the force is removed. Greater
forces may cause permanent
changes of shape or size, called
.plastic deformation

In the modern statement of

Hooke's law, the terms "stress"
and "strain" have precise
mathematical definitions. Stress is
the applied force divided by the
area the force acts on. Strain is
the added length divided by the
.original length

Stress

and Strain:
Stress: is a quantity that is proportional to
the force causing a deformation. Stress is
the external force acting on an object per
unit cross sectional area.
Strain: is a measure of the degree of
deformation. It is found that for
sufficiently small stresses strain is
proportional to stress.

The

constant of the proportionality

depends on the material being deformed
and on the nature of deformation

We

call this proportionality constant the

elastic modulus.

The

elastic modulus is therefore the ratio

of stress to the resulting strain.
Elastic Modulus=Stress/Strain

In

a very real sense it is a comparison of

what is done to a solid object (a force is
applied) and how that object responds (it
deforms to some extent)

We consider three types of deformation

:and define an elastic modulus for each
1.

2.

3.

Youngs Modulus: which measures the

resistance of a solid to a change in its
length
Shear Modulus: which measures the
resistance to motion of the planes of a
solid sliding past each other
Bulk Modulus: which measures the
resistance of solids or liquids to changes
in their volume

:Youngs Modulus

Consider a long bar of cross sectional

area A and initial length Li that is
clamped at one end. When an external
force is applied perpendicular to the
cross section internal forces in the bar
resist distortion stretching but the
bar attains an equilibrium in which its
length Lf is greater than Li and in
which the external force is exactly
balanced by internal forces.

In

such a situation the bar is said to be

stressed. We define the tensile stress as
the ratio of the magnitude of the external
force F to the cross sectional area A. the
tensile strain in this case is defines as the
ratio of the change in length L to the
original length Li.
Y=tensile stress/ tensile strain
Y=(F/A)/(L/Li)

:The Elastic Limit

The elastic limit of a substance is defined as the

maximum stress that can be applied to the substance
before it becomes permanently deformed. It is possible to
exceed the elastic limit of a substance by applying
sufficiently large stress, as seen in in the figure

Initially

a stress strain curve is a straight

line. As the stress increases, however the
curve is no longer a straight line.

When

the stress exceeds the elastic limit

the object is permanently distorted and it
does not return to its original shape after
the stress is removed.

 What

is Youngs modulus for the elastic solid

whose stress strain curve is depicted in the figure
??

Youngs

modulus is given by the ratio of stress to

strain which is the slope of the elastic behavior

section of the graph in slide 9 reading from the
graph we note that a stress of approximately
3x10N/m results in a strain of 0.003. The
slope, and hence Youngs modulus are therefore
10x10N/m.

Shear Modulus:
Another

type of deformation occurs when

an object is subjected to a force tangential
to one of its faces while the opposite face
is held fixed by another force. The stress
in this case is called a shear stress.

If

the object is originally a rectangular

block a shear stress results in a shape
whose cross section is a parallelogram. To
a first approximation (for small
distortions) no change in volume occurs
with this deformation.

We

define the shear stress as F/A, the

ratio of the tangential to the area of A of
the force being sheared.

The

shear strain is defined as the ratio

X/H where X is the horizontal
distance that the sheared force moves and
H is the height of the object.

In

terms of these quantities the shear

modulus is
S= shear stress/ shear strain
S= (F/A)/ (X/H)

:Bulk Modulus
Bulk

modulus characterizes the response

of a substance to uniform squeezing or to
a reduction in pressure when the object is
placed in a partial vacuum. Suppose that
the external forces acting on an object are
at right angles to all its faces, and that
they are distributed uniformly over all the
faces.

uniform distribution of forces occur

when an object is immersed in a fluid. An
object subject to this type of deformation
undergoes a change in volume but no
change in shape. The volume stress is
defined as the ratio of the magnitude of
the normal force F to the area A.
The quantity P=F/A is called the pressure.
If the pressure on an object changes by
an amount P= F/A the object will
experience a volume change V.

The

volume strain is equal to the change

in volume V divided by the initial volume
Vi
B= volume stress/volume strain
B=-(F/A)/( V/Vi)
B=- P/(V/Vi)

When a solid is under uniform pressure it undergoes a change in

volume but no change in shape. This cube is compressed on all
sides by forces normal to its 6 faces.

:Viscosity
The

term viscosity is commonly used in

the description of fluid flow to characterize
the degree of internal friction, or viscous
force is associated with the resistance that
two adjacent layers of fluid have to
moving relative to each other. Viscosity
causes part of the kinetic energy of a fluid
to be converted to internal energy.

Units of Measure

Dynamic viscosity and absolute viscosity are synonymous. The

IUPAC symbol for viscosity is the Greek symbol eta (), and
dynamic viscosity is also commonly referred to using the Greek
symbol mu (). The SI physical unit of dynamic viscosity is the
Pascal-second (Pas), which is identical to 1 kgm1s1. If a
fluid with a viscosity of one Pas is placed between two plates,
and one plate is pushed sideways with a shear stress of one
Pascal, it moves a distance equal to the thickness of the layer
between the plates in one second.

The name Poiseuille (Pl) was proposed for this unit (after
Jean Louis Marie Poiseuille who formulated Poiseuille's law
of viscous flow), but not accepted internationally. Care
must be taken in not confusing the Poiseuille with the poise
named after the same person.

The cgs physical unit for dynamic viscosity is the poise (P), named
after Jean Louis Marie Poiseuille. It is more commonly expressed,
particularly in ASTM standards, as centipoise (cP). The centipoise
is commonly used because water has a viscosity of 1.0020 cP (at
20 C; the closeness to one is a convenient coincidence).
1 P = 1 gcm1s1

The relation between poise and Pascal-seconds is:

10 P = 1 kgm1s1 = 1 Pas
1 cP = 0.001 Pas = 1 mPas