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Civil Engineering

S S KALR
Sr. Prof. (Civil Engg), NAI
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GAUGES ON WORLD RAILWAYS

TYPE OF
GAUGE

GAUGE
IN mm

%OF
TOTAL
LENGTH

NAMES OF COUNTRIES

BROAD GAUGE
(56)

1676

INDIA, PAKISTAN, SRI LANKA,

BRAZIL, ARGENTINA

BROAD GAUGE
(5)

1524

RUSSIA, FINLAND

STANDARD
GAUGE (48.5)

1435

62

ENGLAND,USA, CANADA,
TURKEY, PERSIA & CHINA

CAPE GAUGE
(36)

1067

AFRICA, JAPAN, AUSTRALIA,

NEWZEALAND,

METRE GAUGE
(33.5)

1000

INDIA, FRANCE,
SWITZERLAND, ARGENTINA

INDIA-NARROW GAUGE
(762mm & 610mm) 26 & 2)

VARIOUS
VARIOUS
OTHER GAUGES GAUGES

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CLASSIFICATION OF LINES ON INDIAN RAILWAYS

GROUP
A
B
C
D
D Spl
E
E Spl

SPEED POTENTIAL
(KMPH)
160
130
Suburban
110 and GMT<20
110 and GMT>20
<110and GMT<5
<110and GMT>5
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MAJOR AREAS OF RESPONSIBILITY

1. PERMANENT WAY
2. WORKS
3. BRIDGES

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PRINCIPAL FEATURES OF PERMANENT-WAY

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Rails
Sleepers
Ballast
Embankment
Function
Support & guide vehicles running on it

RAILS

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Rails are members of the track laid in two parallel lines

to provide continuous surface for the movement of
Trains.

Function of rails
Provide a continuous and level surface
Provide a pathway which is smooth and offers
less friction
Lateral guide for the wheels
Bear changes due to vertical loads etc.
Transfers load to formation through sleepers on
wider area.
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Standard Rail section

BG 60 KG,
MG 90R,
NG 50 R

52 KG, 90R
75 R,
60R

Rail is Designated by Weight Per Unit Length (Kg/m or Lb/yd)

KG- Means Kg/m (Indian Railway Standards)
R- Revised British Standards ( Lb/yd)

IRS 52 kg 880 SAIL X10

OB
IRS 52 kg 710 TISCO V 1991
OB

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SERVICE LIFE OF RAILS

RAIL
SECTION

TOTAL GMT
CARRIED, FOR

TOTAL GMT
CARRIED

72 UTS (MM) RAILS

FOR 90UTS RAILS

60 KG

550

800

52 KG

350

525

90 R

250

375

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SLEEPERS
Functions:

To Maintain Gauge distance

To distributes load over a greater area
To provide resilient bed
To maintain track to level & line

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Different Types of Sleepers

Wooden -0.3%

Steel- 1.5%

Cast Iron 4.0%

Pre Stressed Concrete- 94.2%

Fibre Reinforced Plastic

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Type

Wooden Steel

Service life (Yrs) 12-15

Weight(Kg)

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CI

PSC

40-50 40-50
79

87

50-60

267

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Concrete sleepers (PSC)

Advantages
(a) Being heavy, tend more strength and stability to the
track and specially suited to LWR
(b) With elastic fastening, all along the track to maintain
better gauge, cross level & alignment
(c) Being flat bottom, suited for mechanical maintenance
(d) Can be used in track circuited areas
Disadvantages
(b) Handling and laying difficult
(c) Damage at time of derailment
(d) No scrap value
(e) Not suitable for beater packing
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Elastic fastenings
Requirement of an elastic fastening
1. It should hold the gauge firmly in place
2. It should have an adequate toe load
3. It should provide sufficient elasticity to absorb the
vibratory shocks
4. It should offer adequate lateral resistance.
Grooved Rubber Pads
Liners
Elastic rail clips MK III

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Different Types of Concrete Sleepers

Normal line sleepers
Points & Crossings
Guard rails
Switch Expansion Joints
Check rail on curves
Level crossings
Dual Gauge

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BALLAST
Sleeper rests on a bed of stones called Ballast
Functions:

Distributes load over a greater area to formation

Provides elastic & resilient bed
Helps to maintain track to level & line
Helps in drainage.
Longitudinal & lateral stability to track

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REQUIREMENTS OF GOOD BALLAST

Tough and wear resistant

Hard to resist abrasion and attrition
Non-porous and non-absorbent of water
Durable and should not get pulverised due to
weather
Cubicle having sharp edges
Cheap and economical
Size between 20mm 65mm
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FLAWS IN RAILS/WELDS

Inherent defects
Defects due to fault in rolling stock
Excessive corrosion
Badly maintained joints
Defects in weld joints
Improper maintenance of track

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ULTRA SONIC FLAW DETECTION OF RAILS

BY TROLLY
BY SPURT CAR

2-3 KM/DAY
100-200 KM/DAY

SPURT- SELF PROPELLED ULTRASONIC

RAIL TESTING CAR.

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SYSTEMS OF TRACK MAINTENANCE

Conventional system

From one end - periodic

Directed Track Maintenance (DTM)

Need based - as per requirement

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METHODS OF PACKING OF TRACK

Manual (beater) Packing

Systematic Through Packing

Systematic Overhauling
Picking up of slacks

Machine Packing

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MACHINE MAINTENANCE
Necessitated due to

Heavier track, difficult to maintain manually.

Damage to Concrete Sleepers due to beater packing

For

Uniform Packing

Longer retentivity

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TRACK GEOMETRY
MAIN PARAMETERS

Gauge

Alignment

Unevenness- deviation in vertical plane

Cross Level/Twist out of planeness of one of

the four wheels

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METHODS OF MEASUREMENT OF
TRACK GEOMETRY.

Manual
Track Recording Devices

Microprocessor Based Track Recording Car

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WORKS ON TRACK

Works of routine maintenance

Works of short duration
Works of long duration

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PROTECTION OF LINE IN CASE OF WORKS OF

SHORT DURATION AT STOP DEAD RESTRICTION

DOUBLE LINE SECTION

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PROTECTION OF LINE IN CASE OF WORKS OF

SHORT DURATION AT REDUCED SPEED

SAME AS IN CASE OF STOP DEAD RESTRICTION

EXCEPT THAT DETONATORS ARE NOT PLACED
AND FLAGMAN SHALL LIFT THE FLAG ONLY
WHEN DRIVER HAS REDUCED THE SPEED. TRAIN
WILL BE HAND SIGNALLED FORWARD

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WORKS OF LONG DURATION

Line blocked by P-Way Inspector in consultation with

operating department

Caution order issued by Station Master

Temporary Engineering Signals provided at site by PWI

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POINTS AND CROSSINGS

PROVIDED AT INTERSECTION OF TWO

TRACKS TO PERMIT TRAIN TO PASS FROM
ONE TO OTHER.

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TURNOUT

AN ARRANGEMENT OF POINTS & CROSSINGS

WITH LEAD RAILS BY MEANS OF WHICH
ROLLING STOCK IS DIVERTED FROM ONE
TRACK TO ANOTHER .

LEFT HAND
RIGHT HAND

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LEFT HAND SWITCH, WING RAIL &

STOCK RAILS

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ON OBSERVERS LEFT.

RIGHT HAND SWITCH, WING & STOCK

RAILS

ON OBSERVERS RIGHT.

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COMPONENTS OF A TURNOUT

POINT
STOCK RAIL
SWITCH RAIL
STRETCHER BARS

CROSSING
CROSSING BODY
WING RAILS
CHECK RAILS

LEAD RAILS

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DESIGNS OF SWITCHES

LOOSE HEEL: Tongue rails are joined to lead rails

at heel with fish plates

Weak Joint

FIXED HEEL: Tongue rails are held to stock rails at

heel by distance blocks & Bolts

Rigid Joint

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SHAPES OF SWITCHES

STRAIGHT SWITCH

Tongue rails is straight from the tip of the switch to

the heel.

CURVED SWITCH

Tongue rail is curved from the tip to heel to same

radius as of turnout.
Permits higher speeds on turnouts.

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CHECK RAIL CLEARANCE:

BG
Min 44 mm
Max 48 mm

MG
Min 41 mm
Max 44 mm

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ANGLE OF CROSSING

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In IRS design, denoted by the co-tangent of the angle

Designated as 1 in N i.e. 1 in 12 crossing will have an

angle whose co-tangent is 12.

On Indian Railways 4 sizes are used

1 in 8
1 in 12
1 in 16 &
1 in 20
( Flatter Angle - Larger value)

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BUILT UP CROSSING

4 pieces of rails bent & joined by bolts &

blocks

Disadvantage : Not very rigid .

Advantage : Cheap.

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CAST MANGANESE STEEL (CMS)

CROSSING

One piece cast without Bolts.

Advantages:

Better wear resistant

Less cost of maintenance

Disadvantage

High initial cost

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DIAMOND CROSSING

When one track crosses another at an angle

Comprising of two acute and two obtuse crossings

Diamond crossing with slips

When required, Train on one track may also be diverted

to other track

Made possible by the inclusion of two or four pair of

switches with the connecting lead rails
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FACTORS LIMITING SPEEDS OVER TURNOUTS

Sudden change in direction of the running edge, at the

entry to the switch from a straight track.

Variation in cross level caused by raising of the

switch rails.

Absence of super-elevation over the turnout curve.

Non transitioned entry from the curved lead to the

straight crossing.

Gaps in the gauge face and running table at the

crossing.
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Alignment
Direction and location of the track in horizontal and
vertical planes.
Basic requirements
To serve the purpose of the project Strategic,
Political, Development of backward area,
Shortening of existing route, Connecting major
trade centers
Economic considerations
Aesthetic considerations
Maximum safety and comfort

Factors Affecting Choice of Alignment

Gauge
Obligatory points
Topography
Geological formation
Effect of flood
Position of road crossings
Proximity of labour and material
Location of stations
Cost considerations
Traffic considerations
Strategic & Political considerations
Overall economy

Curvature
Curves are provided on a railway track:
To avoid obstructions
To pass through obligatory points
To have crossings at desired angle with rivers etc.
To develop required length between two points
without exceeding prescribed ruling Grade.

 Horizontal curves When a change in direction of

the track is required.
Vertical curves Provided at points where two
gradients meet and algebraic difference between
two grades is equal or more than 0.04 %
Transition curves is an easement curve, in which the
change of radius is progressive throughout its length
Reverse curve
Compound curves

SUPERELEVATION
Equilibrium speed when centrifugal force generated is
exactly balanced by cant provided.
Cant deficiency Difference of cant provided and
theoretically required at speed higher than equilibrium
speed. Max limit 100 mm on Group A & B and 75 mm on
others.
Cant excess Difference of cant provided and
theoretically required at speed lower than equilibrium
speed. Max limit on BG is 75 mm.

MAXIMUM DEGREE OF CURVATURE

B.G. 100 80 with check rails )

M.G. 160 (>140 with check rails )

N.G.( 0.762m) 400

Existing curves are surveyed @ 10 meters apart with the

chord of 20 m length

GRADIENT
To negotiate the rise or fall in the level of the railway
track
h
x
Gradient = h/x (1 in N)
= 100h/x (%)

REQUIREMENT OF GRADIENT
To connect various stations at different elevations
To provide uniform rise or fall
To follow the natured contours of the ground
To reduce the cost of earthwork

TYPES OF GRADIENTS
1. Ruling gradient
2. Pusher or Helper gradient
3. Momentum gradient
4. Gradients in yards

Grade Compensation on Curves

Curves provide extra resistance to movement of trains.
To limit it as on ruling gradient, grade on curve is
compensated (flattened) @
0.04% per degree of curve on BG
0.03% per degree of curve on MG and
0.02% per degree of curve on NG.