THE STRUGGLE FOR

INDEPENDENCE

The Armed Struggle Against the Colonialists

The struggle for independence can be divided into
two stages. The first stage is the armed or bloody
stage which began with the struggle of the Malays
against the Portuguese and the opposition against
the British.
The second stage is the struggle without
bloodshed, through literature and then
negotiations.

 In the first stage, the local people fought against

the first western colonialists, the Portuguese in
Malacca in1511, followed by the Dutch and the
British.
At that time, the Malays fought against the
western colonialists using arms resulting in much
bloodshed.
They were prepared to sacrificed themselves for
the defense of their beloved country against
foreign powers.

1. Malacca (1511-1524)
Led by Sultan Mahmud
Sultan Mahmud repeatedly to win back Malacca
from the Portuguese
The attempts failed until Sultan Mahmud died
in 1528 in Kampar
The struggle was carried on by the Malays from
Acheh and Johore between 1522-1596.

2. Naning (1831-1832)
Led by Penghulu Dol Said
The people of Naning did not agree to Naning
being subjected to the British (as part of
Malacca).
They refused to pay taxes to the British
The British attacked Naning.

3. Selangor (1874)
Led by Raja Mahadi
Raja Mahadi and other local officials objected
to the appointment of Tengku Kudin by the
British as the Selangor viceroy
Tengku Kudin received help from the British
and Chinese Kapitan Yap Ah Loy

4. Perak (1875)
Led by Sultan Abdullah, Dato Maharaja Lela
and Tok Sagor
In November 1875, Resident J. W. W. Birch was
killed in Pasir Salak.
Opposition because of restriction on the sultan,
sanction against the collection of taxes by the
local officials, sudden changes in
administration, ignorance on the part of the
British in understanding Malay customs and
ceremonies and the arrogance of the British.

5. Negeri Sembilan (1875)

Led by Tengku Antah
Quarrels between Tengku Antah and Dato
Kelana
The British sided Dato Kelana, and evoked
opposition from the people against the British
The British entered Negeri Sembilan

6. Pahang (1891-1895)
Led by Tok Gajah and Dato Bahaman
In 1888, J. P. Rodger was appointed resident of
Pahang and introduced the post tax collector
and magistrate.
Local dignitaries lost their source of income
from taxes
A holy was launched against the British

7.

Sarawak
(1853-1860)
Led by Sharif Masahor
Objection to James Brooke occupying the area
of Sungai Rejang
Combined with Datuk Patinggi Abdul Gapur to
attack the British forts in Kanowit and Kuching
1853-1860
Led by Rentap (Libau)
Attacked the Brooke Fort in Sungai Skrang

 Opposed British action to end piracy and headhunting activities

1893-1920s
Led by Banting
The Iban society in the upper Batang Lupar River
attacked Brookes army
Opposed British action to destroy the customs and
traditions of the local people

8. Sabah
1894-1900
Led by Mat Salleh
Mat Salleh successfully launched several attacks
on the British Chartered Company.
In 1897, he succeeded in destroying the
companys port in Pulau Gaya.

 Main reasons for the opposition were large scale

development that brought difficulties to the local
inhabitants, the imposition of taxes by the British
on the local people and the extension of British
power that limited the freedom of the dignitaries.
The Muruts opposed the British Chartered
company
1915
Led by Antanum
Opposition was better known as the Rundum
Revival

 Reasons for the opposition: British action against

the practice of shifting cultivation, the construction
of a highway in Murut territory and the Muruts
being forced to be labourers in the construction of
roads.
9. Kelantan (1915)
Led by Haji Wan Hassan (Tok Janggut)
Opposition was better known as the Tok Janggut
Rebellion

 Opposition started when the British appointed a

District Officer in Pasir Putih, and imposed taxes
on the local people. Arrogance of the taxcollectors made things worse.
The capture of the Pasir Putih Police Station and
the establishment of a temporary government.

10. Terengganu (1922-1928)

Led by Haji Abdul Rahman Limbong
The rebellion was better known as the Peasants
Rebellion
Obtained the help of religious heads like Haji
Zakaria, Mat Zin and Lebai Deraman
A holy war was launched

 Main reasons for the opposition were: action on

the part of the British to impose a pass upon the
farmers for cultivating the land; the British rule
was regarded as making things difficult for
Muslims, going against the teachings of the
religion and threatening the traditional
government; and the imposition of all sorts of
taxes.

11. Malaya (1941-1945)

The Japanese oppression of the local people
Many Chinese were members of the MPAJA, the
Malays formed the Voluntary Army and the
Malay Regiment
The activities of the struggle took the form of
guerilla warfare and were located in the jungle.

 We can conclude that many factors contributed to

the local peoples opposition against the
colonialists.
Colonization caused the local population , their
leaders and rulers to lose control in their own
country.
The foreigners exploited the natural resources and
at the same time controlled the system of taxation,
thus taking away a source of income from the
local officials.

 The local people were reluctant to pay taxes to the

foreigners whom they protested had to no right to
receive any payment of taxes.
Another reason was due to the ignorance of the British
in understanding the local customs and practices.
They were accused of not respecting the local customary
practices. Instead, they tried to eradicate them.
These customary practices included slavery, the tradition
of hunting for human heads in Sarawak, the practice of
shifting cultivation, and the imposition of a pass for
tilling the soil

 These customary practices included slavery, the

tradition of hunting for human heads in Sarawak, the
practice of shifting cultivation, and the imposition of
a pass for cultivation.
It is obvious that before the 20the century, much of
the opposition against the colonialists took the form
of a bloody struggle.
The local people used arms and sacrificed themselves
from the foreign control.
However, from the beginning of the 20th century, the
struggle took another form.

The Struggle for Nationalism

By the 20th century, many changes had resulted from
the peoples fight for independence, from their
struggle for nationalism (except during the period of
the Japanese occupation and the emergency).
Organizations and mass media were used in the
struggle.
External influence as well as the education received
by the citizens were the primary factors that created a
conscious need among the people to fight for
independence using the mind and words rather than
arms and force.

 The emergence of Malay intellectuals encouraged

a struggle using diplomacy that was supported by
a strong spirit of nationalism.
It was apparent at that time that there had
emerged an awareness that independence could be
achieved not only uprisings and fighting, but also
through negotiations and stirring the peoples
spirit of nationalism.
The local people preferred to use associations and
the mass media a channels to express their
dissatisfaction to their colonial masters.

 This spirit grew stronger when the Japanese colonized

this country and proclaimed their slogan of Asia for
Asians.
At the same time, a few members of the Young Malay
Union (Kesatuan Melayu Muda-KMM), an
organization of young radicals , who had been
imprisoned by the British and released.
KMM was revived under the leadership of Ibrahim
Yaacob.
The struggle through the spirit of nationalism
continued even after Japan was defeated in the Second
World War and the British had returned to Malaya.

 In this country, the rise of nationalism among the local

people was resulted from outside influence, the mass
media and organizations.
There were some important events outside the country
contributed to the rise of nationalism.
In 1905, the Japanese succeeded in defeating Russia.
In Turkey, the Young Turkish Movement led by
Mustapha Kamal Ataturk was responsible to abolish
the Caliphate system practised by the Ottoman empire
and introduced the concept of nationalism in the
country.

 Besides, there was a movement for the revival of Islam

emerged in Egypt and it was led by two Muslim
scholars, Syeikh Muhammad Abduh and Jamaluddin alAghani.
In Indonesia, the nationalists struggled against the
Dutch colonizers.
Mass media in the country also played important role to
increase the spirit of nationalism among the people.
Among the most important newspaper during that time
was Al-Imam. It was the main newspaper for the young
community or known as Kaum Muda and the main
leader was Syed Sheikh al-Hadi.

 Saudara was also the newspaper that was

responsible to call for the struggle of the young
community and appealed to the Malays to improve.
Its main leader was Syed Sheikh Al-Hadi.
The first national newspaper was called Majlis. It
forced the British to protect the rights of the Malays.
The primary leader was Abdul Rahim Kajai.
Meanwhile, Warta Malaya was the newspaper that
created awareness among the Malays and criticized
the British policies.

 Utusan Melayu was the newspaper that became a

symbol of Malay unity, and fanned the spirit of
nationalism among the Malays. The primary
leaders were Abdul Rahim Kajai and Ishak Haji
Muhammad.
Another newspaper was Warta Sarawak. This
newspaper raised the spirit of nationalism among
the Malay society in Sarawak. It urged the British
government to improve the standard of living of
the Malays.

 Organizations also played important roles in

spreading the feeling of nationalism.
Among the organizations established were
Singapore Malays Union, Selangor Malays
Union, Perak Malays Union, Peninsular Malays
Union, Persaudaraan Sahabat Pena Melayu and
Kesatuan Melayu Muda.

 The major aims of these organizations were to

encourage Malays to be involved in the
government, to force the British to increase Malay
participation in administration and to improve the
economic, political and social situation of the
Malays.

 For this purpose, the action to standardize

administration under one ruling system was
needed.
At the same time, a single ruling system could cut
down the administrative cost of the Malay states.
The British had stated that their ultimate objective
was to grant independence to the country.

 It was also said that the British deliberately set up

the Malayan Union because of the hatred some
British officers had against the Malays for
supporting the Japanese during their occupation in
Malaya; instead they felt grateful to the MPAJA
(in particular the Chinese) who opposed the
Japanese.

Features of Malayan Union

1. Made up of the nine Malay states, Penang
Island and Malacca
2. The British governor was the chief
administrator, with its centre in Kuala Lumpur.
3. The Malay rulers only advised the governor,
while their sovereignty as rulers of their own
states was wiped off. The rulers authority was
only in issues pertaining to Islam and as head of
the Malay Council of Advisor

4. The State Council was retained for purposes of

managing the local government, but was still
subjected to control by the central government.
5. The Malayan Union did not involve Singapore;
Singapore still remained as British colonial
territory under the rule of a British Governor
General, who was above the Governor of the
Malayan Union.
6. Citizenship was based on the principle of jus
soli. Through this principle, Malayan
citizenship was obtained if:

a.

The foreigner was 18 and above, and has

resided in Malaya for 10 out of a period of 15
years before 15 February 1942
b. A person who was born in Malaya after the
forming of the Malayan Union.
7. Equal rights for all citizens regardless of race or
origin. This includes the entry into government
service and the right o vote in the general
election

 Harold Mac Michael was given the responsibility

of getting the agreement of all the Malay rulers.
In January 1946, the Constitution of the Malayan
Union was passed and on 1 April 1946, the
Malayan Union was officially proclaimed, with
Edward Gent as the first Governor.
The citizens of Malaya, the Malays in particular,
were against the Malayan Union.

Opposition Against Malayan Union

Various parties opposed the setting up of the
Malayan Union.
The strongest opposition came from the Malays.
Malay opposition was both individual and
collective.
Individuals voiced their opposition through the
mass media such as the Malay newspapers Majlis
and Utusan Melayu, mainly at matters relating to
the erosion of the sovereignty and the power of
the Malay rulers and the granting of the right of
citizenship to foreigners on the principle of jus
soli.

 Opposition was collectively organized by Malay

unions at state and national levels.
These unions held demonstrations in various states
to show their objection.
This showed Malay unity in their opposition against
the colonialists.
In Selangor, the Congress of Malay Union was held
from 1-4 March 1946, headed by Dato Onn Jaafar.
A total of 107 representations and 56 observers from
41 Malay unions attended.

 On May 1946, a second congress was held in

Johore Bahru. The result of this congress was the
birth of the United Malay National Organization
(UMNO) with Dato Onn Jaafar as the president.
UMNO was a combination of the Malay unions
including the radicals.
The organization was the pillar of support to the
Malay movement in opposing the Malayan Union
and subsequently the fight for independence.

 Dato Onn Jaafar and other Malay leaders traveled

all over the country to stir up Malay sentiments
against the Malayan Union and used the slogan
Long live the Malays to get the Malays together
to defend their position and rights.
At the inauguration ceremony of the Malayan
Union and the appointment of the governor, the
Malay rulers were not present.

 In fact, the Malays went into mourning for 7 days

(from 1st April 1946) by tying a white band to
their headgear (songkok).
The Malays sitting in the federal and State
Councils also avoided the councils.

Reasons for Malays Opposition

1. The granting of citizenship to the non-Malays. The
easy granting of citizenship could affect the
economic and political situation of the Malays, since
at that time the total number of non-Malay people
exceeded that of the Malays.
2. Erosion of Malay rulers power and sovereignty. The
implementation of the Malayan Union administration
affected the power and sovereignty of the rulers.
Among the Malays, the ruler is the supreme head and
has the power to protect them. The rulers loss of
power meant the loss of Malay power.

3. MacMichaels threat in getting the rulers to sign

the agreement. The Malays became angry when
the rulers they honoured were threatened and
forced to sign the agreement to form the Malayan
Union. The Sultan of Kedah, for example, was
threatened with loss of power and throne if he
refused to sign. The Malays also took offense at
the short time given for discussing the plan to
form the Malayan Union.

 Opposition against the Malayan Union also came

from former British officers in Malaya such as
Frank Swettenham, R. O. Winstedt, George
Maxwell and Cecil Clementi Smith.
They voiced their objection through the press in
London urging the British to protect the interests
and special rights of the Malays.
The non-Malays were not interested in the
Malayan Union, accusing it of being colonial and
undemocratic.

 They lost interest because of the British decision

to postpone the enforcement of the citizenship
right.
Furthermore, they had no capable leaders and
were not very aware of the politics of Malaya.
Their spirit of nationalism was still directed to
their country of origin.
They voiced their dissatisfaction in the press
because it did not include Singapore. This directly
meant that Singapore was left out of the claim for
independence.

Failure of Malayan Union

1. Strong opposition from the Malays. The
suggestion to set up the Malayan Union stirred up
a strong sense of nationalism among the Malays.
2. No strong support from the non-Malays. The
non-Malays were not interested in the Malayan
Union because it excluded Singapore.
3. Wrong timing. Communal feelings and hostility
still existed between the Malays and the Chinese
as a result of the Japanese occupation.

The conditions in Malaya then were still not

really peaceful. Social and economic problems
were obvious. The Malayan Union was accused
of putting the Malays at a disadvantage and
favouring the non-Malays. Malay loyalty to
their ruler and state was still strong.
4. Wrong introduction. The Union was drawn up
in London without taking into account the
situation and wishes of the people in Malaya.
There was also strong objection to the use of
political blackmail to get the agreement signed.

5. Opposition from former British

administrators in Malaya. They urged the
British to protect the interests and special rights
of the Malays.
As a result, the Malayan Union was dissolved in
July 1946.
A consultation took place between Edward Gent
and the Malay rulers and Dato Onn Jaafar to
draw up a new constitution to replace the
Malayan Union constitution.

Federation of Malaya (Persekutuan Tanah

Melayu)
The British government finally agreed to replace
the Malayan Union with a new form of
government, known as the Federation of Malaya.
The Federation of Malaya was formed on 1
February 1948.
After the dissolution of the Malayan Union, the
British government appointed , on 25 July 1946, a
working committee to draw up a new constitution
to replace that of the Malayan Union.

 The committee members consisted of 6 British

officers, 4 representatives of the Malay rulers and 2
UMNO representatives.
The committee propose that the new constitution be
different from the Malayan Union constitution and
included the following matters:
1. Protection for the sovereignty and power of the
Malay rulers
2. More stringent conditions for citizenship for nonMalays
3. Special rights for the Malays

 It is evident here that the British reinstated the rights

of the Malays because of pressure from the Malays
and former British administrators.
The British government fixed 1 February 1948 for
establishing the Federation of Malaya, whose
constitution showed UMNOs claims has been
recognized.
The Federation of Malaya, with a British High
Commissioner as head, comprised nine Malay states
together with Malacca and Penang Island.
Singapore was excluded but still remained a British
colony.

 The Legislative Council and the Federal

Executive Council assisted High Commissioner in
the administration while the Malay rulers were
returned their rights over their own states.
The state government had the right and
responsibility over matters relating to local
government administration, land matters, health,
education and agriculture.
The administration of Malacca and Penang Island
came under a Resident Commissioner.

 In the Federation of Malaya, conditions for

citizenship became more strict and the special
rights of the Malays were recognized.
They had the biggest representation in the Federal
and state government.

The Growth of Political Parties

Political parties continued to grow in Malaya. Leaders
and members of political parties focused their struggle on
protecting the interests of the members (their community)
and also on striving for the countrys independence.
But the motive and objective of the partys fight for
independence differed from party to party.
Every party has its own objective and ideology, and it
was clear that the majority of them were based on
ethnicity (championing the cause of their own
community).

 Political parties that were not based on ethnicity

did not receive sustained support, for example,
the Independent Malayan Party (IMP) under the
leadership of Dato Onn Jaafar.
IMP was set up after Dato Onn Jaafar resigned as
chairman of UMNO on 27 August 1951.
He was said to have been disappointed with the
majority of the UMNO members who opposed his
suggestion to open UMNO membership to all
communities and make UMNO a multiracial
party.

 In his opinion, the setting up of a multiracial party

could increase British confidence about racial
cooperation which became a concern of the British
and an important condition for granting independence
to Malaya.
UMNO, MCA and MIC combined to create a
stronger union called the Alliance which succeeded in
bringing unity and getting the strength and support of
the three biggest communities in the country,
(Malays, Chinese and Indians).
The Alliance fought for independence on the basis of
compromise and negotiation among the communities.

 The Malay radical parties (that combined under

PUTERA) wanted to obtain independence through
combining Malaya with Indonesia to create Melayu Raya
(the Great Malay Empire).
The MCP, on the other hand, wanted to achieve
independence through revolution (that usually involves
bloodshed) like the revolutions that occurred in China
and Russia.
Meanwhile, parties founded on Islam, wanted the
independent country to later become a fully Islamic
country.

1.
i.

ii.

Alliance
UMNO (National United Malay Organization) was founded
in 1946 by Dato Onn Jafar.
The main objectives of this party are to oppose the Malayan
Union, unite the Malays to fight for independence and
protect the interests and rights of the Malays.
MCA (Malayan Chinese Association) was founded in 1949
by Tan Cheng Lock.
The main aims are to protect the interests of the Chinese and
cooperate with other communities to achieve independence.

iii. MIC (Malayan Indian Congress) was founded in

1949 by John Thivy.
The main objective of this party is to protect the
interests of the Indians and fight for
independence with the other communities.
2. Radical/Socialist
i. MCP / PKM (Malayan Communist Party) was
founded in 1930.
It was the oldest political party in Malaya. This
party wanted to achieve independence through
revolution and to establish the Communist
Republic of Malaya.

ii. AWAS (Angkatan Wanita Sedar) was founded by

Shamsiah Fakeh in 1946.
The struggle for independence was influenced by
the nationalist struggle in Indonesia.
iii.API (Angkatan Pemuda Insaf) was founded by
Ahmad Boestamam in 1946. its main struggle was
independence with Indonesia and form Melayu
Raya (the Great Malay Empire).
iv. PKMM (National Malay Party of Malaya) was
founded by D. Burhannudin al-Helmi.

3. Islamic Party
i. PAS (Islamic Party of Malaya) was founded by
Ahmad Fuad Hassan in 1951. Its cause was to
set up an Islamic government.
They fought for Islam as the official religion
and Malay as the official language.
ii. Hisbul Muslimin was founded by Haji Abu
Bakar in 1948. the aim was to establish an
Islamic government in Malaya.

4. Non-communal
i. IMP (Independent Malayan Party) was founded
by Dato Onn Jaafar in 1951 after leaving
UMNO.
This party fought for independence for 10
years.
ii. Parti Negara (National Party) was also founded
by Dato Onn Jaafar in 1954 after IMP was
dissolved in 1953 for lack of support.
This party fought for independence for 5 years.

The General Elections

The first general election was held on 27 July
1955 throughout Malaya.
The parties that contested were Alliance (UMNO,
MCA and MIC), Islamic Party of Malaya (PAS),
National Party (Parti Negara), Labour Party (Parti
Buruh) and Peoples Progressive Party (Parti
Progresif Rakyat).
A total of 52 seats were contested.
The Alliance Party won 51 out of 52 seats
contested and attracted almost 80% of the total
votes.

 This showed that the Alliance with its

combination of UMNO, MCA and MIC that
represented the three biggest communities had the
confidence of the people.
Following the general lection, the System of
Members was changed to the System of Ministers
and Tunku Abdul Rahman was appointed the first
Chief Minister of Malaya.
With their victory, the Alliance was given the
mandate to start negotiations for independence.

Negotiations for Independence

As Chief Minister, Tunku Abdul Rahman led a
team to London in February 1956 to negotiate for
Malayas independence.
The team consisted of 4 representatives of the
Malay rulers: Datuk Panglima Gantang, Dato
Ahmad Kamil, Abdul Aziz Majid and Dato Mohd
Seth; representatives of Alliance: Tunku Abdul
Rahman, Dr. Ismail Abdul Rahman, Dato Abdul
Razak Hussein and Colonel H. S. Lee and the
British representative in Malaya.

 Lord Lennox Boyd, the Secretary of British

Colonial Territories chaired the negotiations which
lasted three weeks, from 18 January to 8 February
1956, the day the London Agreement was signed.
The British promised to grant independence on
condition that a commission be formed to draw up
Malayas new constitution.
The British agreed to declare the date for
independence on 31 August 197.
Tunku Abdul Rahman announced the date for
independence in Padang Hilir Malacca as soon as
the team returned from London.

 Lord Reid headed the Reid Commission, set up in

1956, to draw up a constitution for independent
Malaya.
The members comprised Lord Reid (Britain), Sir
Ivor Jennings (Britain), Sir William McKell
(Australia), B. Malik (India) and Judge Abdul
Hamid (Pakistan).
The constitution, accepted and approved by the
Federal Legislative Council on 15 August 1957,
came into effect on 27 August 1957.

 The 1957 Malayan Constitution, based on the

concept of constitutional monarchy and democracy
have the following as its fundamental principles:
1. The Yang di-Pertuan Agong is the head of Malaya
while the rulers are heads of their respective states.
2. The Malays are recognized as the sons of the soil and
their special rights are guaranteed in the constitution.
3. The Malay language is to become the national
language; English however, can still be used in the
Legislative Council for a period of 10 years after
indfependence.

4. A person born in Malaya on or after

independence is automatically a Malayan
citizen
5. Islam is made the official religion of the
Federation of Malaya, but freedom of worship is
guaranteed for non-Muslims.
The symbolization of Malayan independence
took place the minute the clock ticked the first
second on the 31 August 1957 (after midnight
0f 30 August 1957) at the Selangor Club green
(better known now as Dataran Merdeka).

 That night, the Union Jack (British flag) was brought

down and for the first time the flag of independent
Malaya, now known as Jalur Gemilang, was flown.
At dawn 31 August 1957, the ceremony for the
declaration and the official signing of declaration of
independence took place in the newly built stadium
later known as Merdeka Stadium.
On the same day, the first cabinet of ministers was
announced together with the appointment of Tunku
Abdul Rahman as the first Prime Minister.
The Yang Di Pertuan Besar of Negeri Sembilan,
Tuanku Abdul Rahman, was chosen as the first Yang
di-Pertuan Agong.