Sunset over the Indian Ocean, viewed form the International Space Station

The oranges and yellows show the troposphere

The pink and white is the stratosphere
Above that are the mesosphere, thermosphere, ionosphere and exosphere,
eventually merging to the black of space.

78% Nitrogen, 21% oxygen, 0.9% Argon

Thats 99.9% of the atmosphere

Life needs nitrogen compounds.

Air is 78% nitrogen in the form of the
molecule N2.
Nitrogen in this form is unavailable to
most organisms, but the molecule is
highly inert.
It takes a lot of energy to separate the
atoms so that they can combine to
form the fixed nitrogen, i.e.
nitrogen in compounds such as nitrates
(NO3-), ammonia (NH3) and urea
((NH2)2CO)

The enormous energy of lightning

separates the nitrogen atoms so
they can combine with oxygen to
form nitrogen oxides. These
dissolve
in rain, producing nitrates.
Nitrogen can also be fixed by
biological action and industrial

fixation.

Oxygen was discovered by Wilhelm Scheele in Sweden in 1773

and, independently, by Joseph Priestley in England in 1774.

Named from the Greek (oxys) ("acid", literally

"sharp", referring to the sour taste of acids) and -
(-gens) ("producer", literally "begetter"), because at
the time of naming, it was mistakenly thought that all
acids required oxygen in their composition.
Oxygen exists as O, O2 , and O3 (ozone) but is most
stable as O2.
It is a highly reactive, non-metallic element.
By mass, oxygen is the third most abundant element in
the universe (after hydrogen and helium) and the
most abundant in the Earths crust.

Free oxygen is too reactive to exist on Earth without the

photosynthetic action of living organisms, and began to
accumulate in the atmosphere only after these organisms
evolved about 2 billion years ago.

Largest
dinosaurs exist

Spread of plants
O2 from oceans

Volcanic activity,
mass extinctions

Impact event,
mass
extinctions

Argon, Ar, is the third most common gas in the

atmosphere.
The name "argon" is derived from the Greek word
meaning "lazy" or "the inactive one", a
reference to the fact that the element undergoes
almost no chemical reactions.
It is used mostly as an inert gas shield in welding
and other high temperature activities. It is also
used in fluorescent lighting and for blue-green
gas lasers.
Argon was first isolated in 1894 by Lord Rayleigh
and Sir William Ramsay, in Scotland

Annually, concentrations peak in May as the Northern Hemisphere

spring greenup begins and reach a minimum in October when the
quantity of biomass undergoing photosynthesis is greatest

Ozone can form in sunny, misty

conditions, particularly in polluted
areas

FIRST
OZONE
SONDE
RELEASED
FROM
DAVIS

ALSO IN THE
ATMOSPHERE
H2O

as vapour, liquid water and ice

Condensation nuclei
o Salt, smoke, dust, clay, bacteria, soot,
organic carbon, sulphates etc.
o Some (sulphates, sea salt) are hygroscopic,
i.e. they absorb water. Others (organic
carbon, mineral particles) are not.
o There is usually no scarcity of condensation
nuclei.

ALSO IN THE
ATMOSPHERE
Ice nuclei clay minerals, soot, organic

matter, sulphates, bacteria, silver iodide

etc.

If there are no ice nuclei available, water

droplets and water vapour can be
supercooled freezing may not occur.
At temperatures lower than about -40C,
freezing can occur spontaneously

Zones of the Atmosphere.

Thermosphere: T increases. Upper
limit undefined.
Mesopause: 80-90km AMSL. T varies
from -120C (polar summer) to -50C
(polar winter)
Mesosphere: vertical mixing can
occur- noctilucent clouds
Stratopause, at about 50km AMSL,
T varies from -30C (winter pole) to
+20C (summer pole)

Variation of Height and

Temperature of the Tropopause
January

July

Pole

6km

9km

Midlatitude
Equator

10km -53 C

-60 C

17km -81 C

13km
-53 C
17km
-72 C

Average
-50 C 7km
11km
-53 C
17km
-76 C

-55 C

Below the tropopause the proportions of atmospheric gases

remain fairly constant.
Above the tropopause there is much less H2O than below
and much more ozone.
Because of the stability of the lower part of the
stratosphere, there is very little mixing

Altitude (km)

Typical temperature soundings for polar region, mid-latitudes and tropics

18

Arctic temperatures
Mid-latitude temperatures

15

Tropical temperatures

12
9
6
3
-80

-70 -60 -50 -40

-30 -20 -10

10

20

30

40

Temperature (C)

WEIPA

TROPOPAUSE
FL520
Temp -82oC

MACQUARIE
ISLAND

TROPOPAUSE
FL300
Temp -55oC

Pressure Lapse Rate

Pressure decreases with height and the rate

of decrease decreases. The following
approximations are standard::
1
1
1
1

hPa
hPa
hPa
hPa

/
/
/
/

27 ft from MSL to 2,000 ft.

30 ft from 2,000 ft to 10,000 ft
43 ft from 10,000 ft to 40,000 ft
100 ft above 40,000 ft

In our calculations we use the approximation

1 hPa / 30 ft below 10,000 ft.
Pressure at 18,500 ft is about 500 hPa,
approximately half sea level pressure

Temperature Lapse Rate

Temperature decreases with altitude. The
units are:
C / 1,000 ft
or
C / km
A positive lapse rate is a decrease with
height (which is normal)
A negative lapse rate is an increase of
temperature with height.
An isothermal layer has no change in
temperature with change in height.

Temperature Lapse Rate.

The ISA temperature Lapse Rate is
1.98 C / 1000ft (6.5 C / kilometre)
up to an altitude of 36,089 ft (11 km, the
ISA tropopause)
Above 11 km, it remains constant at 56.5
C up to 20 km.
Within the tropopause we use an
approximation: 2C / 1,000 ft

The ISA - Mean Sea Level Criteria

Temperature
15 C
Pressure
1013.25 hPa

ISA
pressure

Density
1.225 kg/m 3
Humidity
dry.

ISA
Temperature

The ICAO Standard Atmosphere

Environmental Temperature
is the ambient temperature at a level within
the atmosphere, measured and recorded at
the surface by the meteorological observer
and at other levels in the atmosphere by
radiosonde, carried upwards below a
weather balloon.
These observed temperatures show the
Environmental Lapse Rate (ELR) ,
the observed temperature changes with
increase in altitude.
The ELR may change with time, place and
height.

Environmental Lapse Rate

The rate at which the observed
environmental temperatures change
with increase in altitude.
The lapse rate will be referred to as
either OC/1000 feet or OC/km.
The ELR is variable.

E
R
U
T
A
R
PE
M
E
T

The F160/SKEW T Chart

PRESSURE LEVELS
TEMPERATURE TRACE

DEW POINT TRACE

TEMP TRACE

TROPOPAUSE Approx FL380

TEMP AT Tropopause -71oC

DEW POINT
TRACE
INVERSIONS

TROPOPAUSE FL 510
DEW POINT
TRACE

TEMP at Tropopause -79oC

TEMP TRACE

INVERSIONS

ISOTHERMAL

The Importance of the Positive Lapse Rate

in the Troposphere.
The positive lapse rate in the troposphere and
resultant lower temperatures at upper levels, allows a
vertical motion (convection) to occur within the
troposphere.
This vertical motion results in the cooling of air,
reducing the airs capacity to hold water vapour.
Water vapour that becomes excess to the airs
holding capacity changes state into either water
droplets or ice crystals.
These become visible as clouds.

Water Vapour

Environmental Lapse Rate

There is often very little similarity
between:
Actual environmental temperatures
and lapse rates, and
The temperatures and lapse rate
quoted for ISA.

Inversions
Within the troposphere, temperature
generally decreases with height.
On occasions, within layers in the
troposphere, temperatures increase
with an increase in height.
This is called a temperature inversion
or simply, an inversion.

Types of Inversions
Surface/Radiation Inversion
Subsidence inversion
Frontal inversion

Surface Radiation Inversion

Radiation inversions form:
at night
over land
when it is calm or winds are light
in cloudless conditions (usually in a high)
At night the ground radiates its heat upwards
through the atmosphere. The ground gets cold and
cools the air in contact with it (by conduction.)
Light winds will cause the cooling to spread
through a shallow layer. Strong winds will spread
the coolness through a deep layer and an inversion
will not form.

Surface Radiation Inversion

Radiation Inversion
Radiation inversions may also exist well
away from the earths surface
e.g. when radiation at night from the upper
surface of a layer of cloud provides the
cold underlying surface.

Subsidence Inversion
Subsidence inversions occur within high-pressure
systems.
They form when the top of a subsiding parcel of air
descends further than the bottom of the same
parcel of air.
The temperature of the top of the parcel will
experience more adiabatic heating due to
compression than the bottom of the parcel,
creating the inversion.

Wind Shear
Subsidence Inversion
Surface Inversion

Frontal Inversions
Frontal inversions occur along
fronts when warm air overlies
colder air.
A WARM FRONT

WARM AIR
COLD AIR

MOVEMENT OF FRONT

Impact of Inversions on
Aircraft Operations
Inversions tend to create a level of
absolute stability within the
atmosphere.
Normally updraughts from convection
will not continue to rise through an
inversion therefore convective
turbulence ceases at the inversion.

Impact of Inversions on
Aircraft Operations
Horizontal wind shear (a change in
either or both direction and speed) may
be marked as an aircraft climbs above
an inversion.
Turbulence may be felt as an aircraft
transits the windshear.
Wind shear is a rapid change the direction and/or speed of
the horizontal wind.

Impact of Inversions on
Aircraft Operations
Matter lifted by currents and
suspended in the atmosphere will be
concentrated below an inversion.
Subsequently horizontal visibility
improves above an inversion.
At a constant throttle setting , ROC
decreases in the warmer air near an
inversion.

Water Vapour in the Atmosphere.

Water vapour is a colourless, odourless
and tasteless gas.
So how do you know its there?
How do you measure the humidity?

MEASUREMENT OF HUMIDITY
Psychrometer has two
thermometers, one with a dry
bulb, one with a wet bulb.
Hygrometer or hygrograph
Satellite

Psychrometer with wet and

dry bulb thermometers

Hygrometers
Human hair hygrometer, works on the
length of a hair, which increases with
increased humidity.
Electronic hygrometer - Chilled mirror
dewpoint hygrometer, very accurate
but needs frequent maintenance.
Electronic hygrometer uses
capacitance less accurate but
cheaper and more robust.

Hygrometer/hygrograph

Satellite image; water vapour

Comparison of
IR (Infra red) and
WV (Water vapour)
satellite images
for 0230 UTC on
13th Nov 2011

Water Vapour in the Atmosphere.

Water vapour is a colourless, odourless
and tasteless gas.
Water vapour content generally
decreases as the distance from the
source of water vapour (oceans,
lakes, rivers and vegetation)
increases.
Almost all of the earths water vapour is
contained within the troposphere.

Water Vapor Vs Temperature.

If temperature decreases at
constant pressure the mass of
w ater vapour that can freely exist
within the atmosphere decreases.
This is slightly offset by a pressure
decrease, as, at constant
temperature a decrease in
pressure will allow more water
vapor to be present.

Water Vapor in the Atmosphere.

The lower temperatures in the upper
troposphere decrease the potential
for water vapor to exist in the
upper levels of the troposphere.
The amount of water that still
remains gaseous at the tropopause
is very small.

Water Vapour
GRAMS/KG DRY AIR

0.1200

0.1000

GRAMS/KG DRY AIR

0.0800

0.0600

0.0400

0.0200

0.0000
-70

-65

-60

-55
Temperature

-50

-45

-40

ATMOSPHERE

ATPL METEOROLOGY

The International Standard

Atmosphere assumes a lapse
rate in the troposphere of:
a)2C/1000ft
b)1.5C/1000ft
c)3C/1000ft
d)1.98C/1000ft

ATMOSPHERE

ATPL METEOROLOGY

The International Standard

Atmosphere assumes a lapse
rate in the troposphere of:
a)2C/1000ft
b)1.5C/1000ft
c)3C/1000ft
d)1.98C/1000ft

ATMOSPHERE

ATPL METEOROLOGY

Which of the following statements is

correct regarding the composition
of the atmosphere?
a)

Oxygen 78%, nitrogen 21%, other gases 1%

b) Oxygen 21%, nitrogen 78%, other gases 1%
c) Oxygen 21%, hydrogen 42%, nitrogen 15%,
other gases 22%
a) Argon 21%, nitrogen 78%, oxygen 1%

ATMOSPHERE

ATPL METEOROLOGY

Which of the following statements is

correct regarding the composition
of the atmosphere?
a)

Oxygen 78%, nitrogen 21%, other gases 1%

b) Oxygen 21%, nitrogen 78%, other gases 1%
c) Oxygen 21%, hydrogen 42%, nitrogen 15%,
other gases 22%
a) Argon 21%, nitrogen 78%, oxygen 1%

ATMOSPHERE

ATPL METEOROLOGY

Compared with m.s.l, the

oxygen % at jet aircraft cruising
levels is:
a) negligible
b) greater
c) the same
d) significantly lower and so a
pressurization system is required

ATMOSPHERE

ATPL METEOROLOGY

Compared with m.s.l, the

oxygen % at jet aircraft cruising
levels is:
a) negligible
b) greater
c) the same
d) significantly lower and so a
pressurization system is required

ATMOSPHERE

ATPL METEOROLOGY

Temperatures at the tropopause are:

a) Lower at low latitudes
b) Uniform at all latitudes at
approximately -56.5C
c) Uniform at all latitudes at
approximately -65.5C
d) Lower at the poles than at the
equator

ATMOSPHERE

ATPL METEOROLOGY

Temperatures at the tropopause are:

a) Lower at low latitudes
b) Uniform at all latitudes at
approximately -56.5C
c) Uniform at all latitudes at
approximately -65.5C
d) Lower at the poles than at the
equator

ATMOSPHERE

ATPL METEOROLOGY

The tropopause is:

a) The boundary where the
temperature no longer decreases
with increase of height
b) The layer between the tropopause
and the stratosphere.
c) The layer beyond which only Ci
cloud occurs.
d) The line indicating clear air
turbulence.

ATMOSPHERE

ATPL METEOROLOGY

The tropopause is:

a) The boundary where the
temperature no longer decreases
with increase of height
b) The layer between the tropopause
and the stratosphere.
c) The layer beyond which only Ci
cloud occurs.
d) The line indicating clear air
turbulence.

ATMOSPHERE

ATPL METEOROLOGY

Most of the water vapour in the

atmosphere is contained in the:
a)Tropopause
b) Stratosphere
c) troposphere
d) stratopause

ATMOSPHERE

ATPL METEOROLOGY

Most of the water vapour in the

atmosphere is contained in the:
a)Tropopause
b) Stratosphere
c) troposphere
d) stratopause

ATPL METEOROLOGY
When would the tropopause
temperature over southern Europe
would be lowest ?
ATMOSPHERE

a) January
b) March
c) July

d) September
HINT Consider when the surface

ATMOSPHERE

ATPL METEOROLOGY

Where is the OZONE layer?

a)In the ionosphere
b) In the stratosphere
c) At the tropopause

ATMOSPHERE

ATPL METEOROLOGY

Where is the OZONE layer?

a)In the ionosphere
b) In the stratosphere
c) At the tropopause

EN
D