TRANSDUCER

CHAPTER 6
What is transducer?
• A transducer is a device, usually electrical,
electronic, electro-mechanical, electromagnetic,
photonic, or photovoltaic that converts one type of
energy or physical attribute to another for various
purposes including measurement or information
transfer (for example, pressure sensors).
• The term transducer is commonly used in two senses;
the sensor, used to detect a parameter in one form and
report it in another (usually an electrical or digital
signal), and the audio loudspeaker, which converts
electrical voltage variations representing music or
speech, to mechanical cone vibration and hence vibrates
air molecules creating acoustical energy.
What is transducer?
Non-electrical physical quantity: temperature, sound or light

Electrical signal
TRANSDUCER
• Temperature transducers
▫ Thermocouples
▫ Resistance-Temperature Detectors (RTD)
▫ Thermistors
• Resistive position transducers
• Displacement transducers
• Strain gauge
Classification of transducer
• Self generating type – do not require an external
power, and produce an analog voltage or current
when stimulated by some physical form of
energy
▫ Thermocouple
▫ Photovoltaic cell
▫ Moving coil generator
Classification of transducer
• Passive transducers – require an external power,
and the output is a measure of some variation
(resistance or capacitance)
▫ Slide-wire resistor
▫ Resistance strain gauge
▫ Differential transformer
Signal conditioning
• In electronics, signal conditioning means
manipulating an analogue signal in such a
way that it meets the requirements of the next
stage for further processing. For example, the
output of an electronic temperature sensor,
which is probably in the millivolts range is
probably too low for an Analog-to-digital
converter (ADC) to process directly. In this
case the signal conditioning is the
amplification necessary to bring the voltage
level up to that required by the ADC.
Signal conditioning
• Types of devices that use signal conditioning include
signal filters, instrument amplifiers, sample-
and-hold amplifiers, isolation amplifiers,
signal isolators, multiplexers, bridge
conditioners, analog-to-digital converters,
digital-to-analog converters, frequency
converters or translators, voltage converters or
inverters, frequency-to-voltage converters,
voltage-to-frequency converters, current-to-
voltage converters, current loop converters,
and charge converters.
Signal conditioning
• Signal inputs accepted by signal conditioners
include DC voltage and current, AC voltage
and current, frequency and electric charge
• Outputs for signal conditioning equipment can
be voltage, current, frequency, timer or counter,
relay, resistance or potentiometer, and other
specialized outputs
TRANSDUCER
• Temperature transducers
▫ Thermocouples
▫ Resistance-Temperature Detectors (RTD)
▫ Thermistors
• Resistive position transducers
• Displacement transducers
• Strain gauge
Thermocouple
• In 1821, T.J. Seebeck discovered that an electric
potential occurs when 2 different metals are joined
into a loop and the two junctions are held at
different temperatures.
• Seebeck emf – a voltage difference between the two
ends of the conductor that depends on the
temperature difference of the ends and a material
property.
• If the ends of the wire have the same temperature,
no emf occurs, even if the middle of the wire is
hotter or colder.
Thermocouple - Principle

Twisting or welding of 2 wires

In normal operation, cold junction is
placed in an ice bath
In normal operation, cold junction is
placed in an ice bath
Thermocouples
• Type K : Chromel-Alumel
• Type J : Iron-Constantan
• Type E : Chromel-Constantan
• Type N : Nicros-Nisil
• Type T : Copper-Constantan

• It is important to note that thermocouples

measure the temperature difference between two
points, not absolute temperature.
Magnitude of thermal EMF

E = c(T1 − T2 ) + k (T − T ) 1
2
2
2

where
c and k = constants of the thermocouple materials
T1 = the temperature of the ‘hot’ junction
T2 = the temperature of the ‘cold’ or ‘reference’ junction
Problem
A thermocouple was found to have linear calibration
between 0⁰C and 400⁰C with emf at maximum
temperature (reference junction temperature
0⁰C) equal to 20.68 mV.

a) Determine the correction which must be

made to the indicated emf if the cold junction
temperature is 25⁰C.

b) If the indicated emf is 8.82 mV in the

thermocouple circuit, determine the
temperature of the hot junction.
Solution
(a) Sensitivity of the thermocouple
= 20.68/(400-0)
= 0.0517 mV/⁰C
Since the thermocouple is calibrated at the
reference junction of 0⁰C and is being
used at 25⁰C, then the correction which
must be made, Ecorr between 0⁰C and 25⁰C
Ecorr = 0.0517 x 25
Ecorr = 1.293 mV
Solution
(b) Indicated emf between the hot junction and
reference junction at 25⁰C = 8.92 mV

Difference of temperature between hot and

cold junctions = 8.92/0.0517 = 172.53⁰C

Since the reference junction temperature is

25⁰C,
hot junction temperature = 172.53 + 25 =
197.53⁰C.
Thermocouple - applications
• Thermocouples are most suitable for measuring over
a large temperature range, up to 1800 K.

Example:
Type K : Chromel-Alumel (-190⁰C to 1260⁰C)
Type J : Iron-Constantan (-190⁰C to 760⁰C)
Type E : Chromel-Constantan
(-100⁰C to 1260⁰C)
Thermocouple - applications
• Thermocouples are most suitable for measuring over a
large temperature range, up to 1800 K.

• They are less suitable for applications where smaller

temperature differences need to be measured with high
accuracy, for example the range 0–100 °C with 0.1 °C
accuracy. For such applications, thermistors and RTDs
are more suitable.
Resistance temperature detector
(RTD)
Resistance temperature detectors (RTDs),
also called resistance thermometers, are
temperature sensors that exploit the predictable
change in electrical resistance of some materials
with changing temperature.

Temperature Metal Resistance

The resistance ideally varies linearly with

temperature.
Resistance vs Temperature
Approximations
Resistance vs Temperature
Approximations
• A straight line has been drawn between the
points of the curve that represent temperature,
T1 and T2, and T0 represent the midpoint
temperature.
Resistance vs Temperature
Approximations
Straight line equation

R (T ) = R(To )[1 + α o ∆T ] T1 < T < T2

R(T) = approximation of resistance at

temperature T
R(T0) = resistance at temperature T0
αo = fractional change in resistance per
degree of temperature at T0
ΔT = T - T0
Resistance vs Temperature Linear
Approximations
Straight line equation

1 R2 − R1
αo = ( )
R (T0 ) T2 − T1
R2 = resistance at T2
R1 = resistance at T1
Example
Example
RTD – quadratic approximation
• More accurate representation of R-T curve over
some span of temperatures.
RTD – quadratic approximation
R (T ) = R (To )[1 + α1∆T + α 2 (∆T ) ] T1 < T < T2
2

R(T) = quadratic approximation of

resistance at temperature T
R(T0) = resistance at temperature T0
α1 = linear fractional change in resistance
with temperature
α2 = quadratic fractional change in
resistance with temperature
ΔT = T - T0
Example
Example

Solution
Example

Solution
Nickel
Tungsten

Copper

Platinum

Platinum: very repeatable, sensitive,

expensive

Nickel: not quite repeatable, more

sensitive, less expensive
RTD - sensitivity
• Sensitivity is shown by the value αo
▫ Platinum – 0.004/ °C
▫ Nickel – 0.005/ °C
• Thus, for a 100Ω platinum RTD, a change of
only 0.4 Ω would be expected if the temperature
is changed by 1°C
RTD – response time
• Generally 0.5 to 5 seconds or more
• The slowness of response is due principally to
the slowness of thermal conductivity in bringing
the device into thermal equilibrium with its
environment.
Construction of a platinum resistance
thermometer
Construction of a platinum resistance
thermometer

Wire is in a coil to achieve small size and improve thermal conductivity

to decrease response time.
Construction of a platinum resistance
thermometer

Protect from the environment

Thermistor
• Semiconductor resistance sensors
• Unlike metals, thermistors respond negatively to
temperature and their coefficient of resistance is
of the order of 10 times higher than that of
platinum or copper.

• Temperature semiconductor resistance

• Symbol
Thermistor: resistance vs temperature
Thermistor
• Scan example 6.3 module page 109
TRANSDUCER
• Temperature transducers
▫ Thermocouples
▫ Resistance-Temperature Detectors (RTD)
▫ Thermistors
• Resistive position transducers
• Displacement transducers
• Strain gauge
Resistive position transducers
Distance

Electrical signal
Resistive position transducers
Resistive position transducers
Resistive position transducers

R1

R2 R2
Vo = VT
R1 + R2
TRANSDUCER
• Temperature transducers
▫ Thermocouples
▫ Resistance-Temperature Detectors (RTD)
▫ Thermistors
• Resistive position transducers
• Displacement transducers
• Strain gauge
Displacement transducers
• Capacitive transducer
• Inductive transducer
• Variable inductance transducer
Capacitive transducers
• The capacitance of a parallel-plate capacitor is given by

ε oεA
C=
d
ε = dielectric constant
εo = 8.854 x 1o-12 , in farad per meter
A = the area of the plate, in square meter
d = the plate spacing in meters
Capacitive transducers – physical
design
Inductive transducers
• Principle: if there is a relative motion between a
conductor and magnetic field, a voltage is
induced in the conductor.
Inductive transducers – tachometer
with a permanent magnet stator
Inductive transducer – tachometer
with a permanent magnet rotor
Variable Inductance Transducers
• Principle: modulation of the excitation signal.
• Consist of a primary winding and two secondary
windings, wound over a hollow tube and
positioned so that the primary is between two
secondary.
Variable Inductance Transducers -
construction
Variable Inductance Transducers –
schematic diagram
Variable Inductance Transducers –
operation

When the core is in the center, the voltage induced

in the two secondaries is equal.
When the core is moved in one direction from the
center, the voltage induced in one winding is
increased and that in the others is decreased.
Movement in the opposite direction reverse the
effect.
Variable Inductance Transducers –
operation

Core at the center

V1 = V2
Vo = 0
Variable Inductance Transducers –
operation

Core moves towards S1

V1 > V2
Vo increase
Variable Inductance Transducers –
operation

Core moves towards S2

V2 > V1
Vo decrease
Variable Inductance Transducers – with
absolute magnitude
TRANSDUCER
• Temperature transducers
▫ Thermocouples
▫ Resistance-Temperature Detectors (RTD)
▫ Thermistors
• Resistive position transducers
• Displacement transducers
• Strain gauge
Stress
• Stress is a measure of the average amount of
force exerted per unit area. It is a measure of
the intensity of the total internal forces acting
within a body across imaginary internal surfaces,
as a reaction to external applied forces and body
forces. It was introduced into the theory of
elasticity by Cauchy around 1822. Stress is a
concept that is based on the concept of
continuum.
Stress
In general, stress is expressed as

is the average stress, also called

engineering or nominal stress

and is the force acting over the area .

Strain
Strain is the geometrical expression of
deformation caused by the action of stress on a
physical body. Strain is calculated by first
assuming a change between two body states: the
beginning state and the final state. Then the
difference in placement of two points in this
body in those two states expresses the numerical
value of strain. Strain therefore expresses itself
as a change in size and/or shape.
Strain
• The strain is defined as the fractional change in
length

∆l
strain =
l

• Strain is thus a unitless quantity

Strain
• The strain is defined as the fractional change in
length

∆l
strain =
l

• Strain is thus a unitless quantity

Stress-strain curve
Strain gauge
ρL
From the equation of resistance, R=
A
R = resistance
ρ = specific resistance of the conductor
material
L = the length of the conductor in meters
A = the area of the conductor in square meters
Strain gauge
To measure
pressure

When a strain produced by a force is applied on

the wires, L increase and A decrease.
Strain gauge
L – increase
A – decrease
ρL
From the equation of resistance, R=
A
R – increase
Strain gauge – the gauge factor
∆R / R
K=
∆L / L

K = the gauge factor

R = the initial resistance in ohms (without strain)
ΔR = the change of initial resistance in
ohms
L = the initial length in meters (without strain)
Strain gauge – the gauge factor
∆R / R
K=
∆L / L

K = the gauge factor

R = the initial resistance in ohms (without strain)
ΔR = the change of initial resistance in
ohms
L = the initial length in meters (without strain)
Strain gauge – the gauge factor
∆R / R
K=
G