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Figure 22.00
Animal Diets
Herbivores mainly feed on plants.
Carnivores eat animals.
Omnivores eat plants and animals.
ANIMAL DIETS
Herbivore
(mainly eats plants
or algae)
Carnivore
(mainly eats animals)
Omnivore
(regularly eats animals
as well as plants or algae)
Figure 22.1
Herbivore
(mainly eats plants
or algae)
Figure 22.1a
Carnivore
(mainly eats animals)
Figure 22.1b
Omnivore
(regularly eats animals
as well as plants or algae)
Figure 22.1c
Cheese protein
(a polymer of amino acids
in a specific sequence)
Amino acid
monomer
Breakdown of protein
by human digestive
system
Amino acids
Figure 22.2-1
Cheese protein
(a polymer of amino acids
in a specific sequence)
Amino acid
monomer
Breakdown of protein
by human digestive
system
Amino acids
Absorption of amino acids by cells lining the small
intestine; transport via bloodstream to other cells
Figure 22.2-2
Cheese protein
(a polymer of amino acids
in a specific sequence)
Amino acid
monomer
Breakdown of protein
by human digestive
system
Amino acids
Absorption of amino acids by cells lining the small
intestine; transport via bloodstream to other cells
Human protein
Figure 22.2-3
Protein
H 2O
Amino acid
OH
Enzyme
(pepsin)
Carbohydrate
H 2O
Sugar
OH
Enzyme
(amylase)
Fat
H2O
Fatty acid
Glycerol
H 2O
H
H O
H
H 2O
OH
OH
Enzyme (lipase)
Figure 22.3
Protein digestion
H2 O
Amino acid
OH
Enzyme
(pepsin)
Figure 22.3a
Carbohydrate digestion
Sugar
H2O
OH
Enzyme
(amylase)
Figure 22.3b
Fat digestion
H2O
Fatty acid
Glycerol
H
H O
H2O
H2O
OH
OH
Enzyme (lipase)
Figure 22.3c
Digestive Compartments
How do animals digest their food without digesting themselves?
In animals, chemical digestion is contained safely within some
kind of compartment.
Gastrovascular cavities:
Are digestive compartments surrounded by cells
Have only a single opening
Mouth
Anus
Food
(water
Flea)
Gastrovascular
Hydra cavity
Intestine
Food
particle
engulfed
Interior of
intestine
Earthworm
Figure 22.4
Gastrovascular Cavity
Single
opening
Food
(water
Flea)
Hydra
Gastrovascular
cavity
Food
particle
engulfed
Figure 22.4a
Anus
Intestine
Interior of
intestine
Earthworm
Figure 22.4b
System Map
ACCESSORY ORGANS
Salivary glands
ALIMENTARY CANAL
Mouth
Tongue
Pharynx
Esophagus
Liver
Gallbladder
Pancreas
Stomach
Small intestine
Colon of large intestine
Appendix
Rectum
Anus
Figure 22.5
The Mouth
The mouth, or oral cavity, functions in:
Ingestion
The preliminary steps of digestion
Incisors
Canine
Premolars
Teeth
Molars
Wisdom
tooth
Tongue
Opening of a
salivary gland duct
Figure 22.6
The Pharynx
The pharynx:
Connects the mouth to the esophagus
Opens to the trachea, which leads to the lungs
NOT SWALLOWING
Tongue
Ball of
food
Pharynx
Trachea
(windpipe)
open
Epiglottis
up
Esophageal
sphincter
(contracted)
Esophagus
closed
Figure 22.7-1
NOT SWALLOWING
SWALLOWING STARTED
Tongue
Ball of
food
Pharynx
Trachea
(windpipe)
open
Epiglottis
up
Epiglottis
down
Esophageal
sphincter
(contracted)
Adams
apple
Esophagus
closed
Trachea
closed
Esophagus
open
Figure 22.7-2
NOT SWALLOWING
SWALLOWING STARTED
SWALLOWING FINISHED
Tongue
Ball of
food
Pharynx
Trachea
(windpipe)
open
Epiglottis
up
Epiglottis
down
Esophageal
sphincter
(contracted)
Adams
apple
Esophagus
closed
Trachea
closed
Esophagus
open
Epiglottis
up
Trachea
open
Esophageal
sphincter
(contracted)
Figure 22.7-3
The Esophagus
The esophagus:
Is a muscular tube
Connects the pharynx to the stomach
Moves food down by peristalsis, alternating waves of muscular
contraction and relaxation
Esophageal sphincter
(contracted)
Food ball
Relaxed muscles
Contracted muscles
Relaxed muscles
Stomach
Figure 22.8
The Stomach
The stomach:
Can store food for several hours
Churns food into a thick soup called chyme
Esophagus
Sphincters control
the flow into and
out of the stomach.
Accordion-like
folds allow the
stomach to expand.
Food
particle
Small intestine
Stomach lining
secretes gastric
juice (acid, enzyme
molecules,
and mucus).
Figure 22.9
Stomach Ailments
Heartburn is caused by backflow of chyme into the esophagus.
Gastric ulcers are:
Erosions of the stomach lining
Often caused by the bacterium Helicobacter pylori
Colorized SEM
Stomach mucus
Figure 22.10
Bile
Liver
Stomach
Bile
Gallbladder
Intestinal
enzymes
Chyme
Pancreatic juice
Duodenum of
small intestine
Pancreas
Figure 22.11
Absorption of Nutrients
In the duodenum, nutrients are:
Completely digested
Ready to be absorbed
Nutrients only enter the body if they are absorbed into the walls
of the digestive tract.
Mouth
Alimentary
canal
Anus
Blood vessels
Muscle
layers
Intestinal wall
Villi
Interior of
intestine
Nutrient
absorption
Interior of
intestine
Nutrient
absorption
Microvilli
Epithelial
cells
Nutrient
absorption
Blood
capillaries
Blood
Lymphatic
vessel
Epithelial cells
and blood capillary
Villi
Figure 22.13
Blood vessels
Muscle
layers
Intestinal wall
Villi
Interior of
intestine
Nutrient
absorption
Figure 22.13a
Interior of intestine
Nutrient
absorption
Epithelial
cells
Blood
capillaries
Lymphatic
vessel
Villi
Figure 22.13b
Microvilli
Nutrient
absorption
Blood
Epithelial cells
and blood capillary
Figure 22.13c
The colon:
Forms the main portion of the large intestine
Absorbs water from the alimentary canal
Produces feces, the waste product of food
The rectum:
Forms the last 15 cm (6 inches) of the large intestine
Stores feces until elimination
The anus:
Consists of two sphincters
Regulates the opening of the rectum
Colon of
large
intestine
Sphincter
End
of small
intestine
Small
intestine
Rectum
Anus
Nutrient
flow
Appendix
Figure 22.14
Colon of
large
intestine
Small
intestine
Rectum
Anus
Figure 22.14a
Sphincter
End
of small
intestine
Nutrient
flow
Appendix
Figure 22.14b
Mouth
Ingestion
Food into mouth
Food
Stomach
Small
intestine
Large
intestine
Anus
Figure 22.15-1
Mouth
Ingestion
Food into mouth
Digestion
Mechanical digestion
Chewing in mouth
Churning in stomach
Chemical digestion
Saliva in mouth
Acid and pepsin in
stomach
Enzymes in small
intestine
Food
Stomach
Small
intestine
Large
intestine
Anus
Figure 22.15-2
Mouth
Ingestion
Food into mouth
Digestion
Mechanical digestion
Chewing in mouth
Churning in stomach
Chemical digestion
Saliva in mouth
Acid and pepsin in
stomach
Enzymes in small
intestine
Absorption
Nutrients and water
in small intestine
Food
Stomach
Small
intestine
Water in large
intestine
Large
intestine
Anus
Figure 22.15-3
Mouth
Ingestion
Food into mouth
Digestion
Mechanical digestion
Chewing in mouth
Churning in stomach
Chemical digestion
Saliva in mouth
Acid and pepsin in
stomach
Enzymes in small
intestine
Absorption
Nutrients and water
in small intestine
Food
Stomach
Small
intestine
Water in large
intestine
Elimination
Feces formed in
large intestine
Elimination from anus
Large
intestine
Anus
Figure 22.15-4
Food as Fuel
Cells use cellular respiration to:
Extract energy stored in food molecules
Generate molecules of ATP to do work
Fuel
(organic molecules
such as glucose)
O2
C6H12O6
Cellular
respiration
Mitochondrion
Cell
Figure 22.16-1
Fuel
(organic molecules
such as glucose)
C6H12O6
O2
Cellular
respiration
Mitochondrion
ATP
Cell
energy for
cellular work
Exhaust
CO2 and H2O
Figure 22.16-2
Calories
Calories are a measure of the energy:
Stored in your food
Used in daily activities
Metabolic Rate
The rate of energy consumption by the body is the metabolic
rate.
A persons metabolic rate consists of:
The basal metabolic rate (BMR), the amount of energy it takes to
maintain body functions
Energy needed for activities
Table 22.1
Essential nutrients:
Are substances needed by the body but
Cannot be made in the body from other molecules
Corn
Methionine
Valine
Threonine
Phenylalanine
Leucine
Isoleucine
Tryptophan
Lysine
Beans
and other
legumes
Complete meals
Figure 22.17
Corn
Methionine
Valine
Threonine
Phenylalanine
Leucine
Isoleucine
Tryptophan
Lysine
Beans
and other
legumes
Figure 22.17a
Complete meals
Figure 22.17b
Vitamins
Vitamins:
Are organic molecules
Are required in the diet in very small amounts
Usually assist enzymes in catalyzing metabolic reactions
Table 22.2
Table 22.2a
Table 22.2b
Minerals
Minerals are inorganic substances required in the diet.
Too much or too little of most minerals can cause harm.
Figure 22.18
Figure 22.18a
Figure 22.18b
NUTRITIONAL DISORDERS
Nutritional dysfunction can cause severe problems.
Malnutrition
Malnutrition refers to health problems caused by an:
Improper or
Insufficient diet
Protein deficiency:
causes the most human suffering
Is concentrated where there is a great gap between food supply and
population size
Figure 22.19
Eating Disorders
Eating disorders:
Affect millions of Americans
Are more common in women than men
Result in malnutrition
Obesity
Obesity:
Is an inappropriately high body mass index (BMI)
Is the nutritional disorder of greatest concern
Affects about one-third of all Americans
Increases the risk of heart attack, diabetes, and other diseases
55
54
em
e
BM ly ob
es
I>
e
39
57
56
O
BM bes
e
I3
0
39
58
Ov
e
BM rwe
I 2 igh
t
5
29
Height
511
510
59
N
BM orm
al
I1
8.5
2
4
61
60
Un
de
BM rwei
g
I<
18 ht
.5
64
63
62
53
52
Ex
tr
51
50
411
410
100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230 240 250 260
Weight (pounds)
Figure 22.20
Figure 22.21
10
20
30
40
50
60
Injected
with leptin
Figure 22.22
Evolution Connection:
Fat and Sugar Cravings
Most Americans:
Crave fatty and/or sweet foods
Eat too many high-calorie foods
Figure 22.23
Ingestion
Food
Food in
mouth
Figure 22.UN1-1
Digestion
Ingestion
Food
Mechanical
digestion
Chemical
Small
digestion molecules
Food in via enzymes
mouth
Figure 22.UN1-2
Inside
body
Digestion
Ingestion
Food
Mechanical
digestion
Absorption
Chemical
Small
digestion molecules
Food in via enzymes
mouth
Figure 22.UN1-3
Inside
body
Digestion
Ingestion
Food
Mechanical
digestion
Chemical
Small
digestion molecules
Food in via enzymes
mouth
Absorption
Elimination
Undigested
materials
Figure 22.UN1-4
Alimentary
canal
Mouth
(oral cavity)
Accessory
organs
Digestion
Mechanical
Chemical
Absorption
Salivary
amylase
Pharynx and
esophagus
Stomach
Liver,
Small intestine gallbladder,
pancreas
Large intestine
Churning
Acid and
pepsin (in
gastric juice)
Other
enzymes
Nutrients
and water
Water
Anus
Figure 22.UN2
Cellular
respiration
Food
Cell
O2
Figure 22.UN3-1
Cellular
respiration
Food
ATP
Cell
O2
CO2
H2O
Figure 22.UN3-2
ESSENTIAL NUTRIENTS
Essential
Amino Acids
Required
for protein
production
Vitamins
Minerals
Organic molecules
required in very
small amounts
Essential chemical
elements from
inorganic
compounds
Essential
Fatty Acids
Required
to make cell
membranes
Figure 22.UN4
Nutrition
Facts
Serving Size 1 Cookie 28 g/1 oz
Servings Per Container 8
Amount Per Serving
Calories 140
Protein 2g
Figure 22.UN5