ACD505 Session 04

Session 04
Aircraft Accelerated Flight 2
aculty of Engineering & Technology
Session Speaker
M. Sivapragasam
1
M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences
Session Objectives
At the end of this session, student will be able to:
Differentiate take off and landing requirements of
different types of aircraft
Calculate the take off performance of an aircraft
Explain balanced field length requirements for
aircraft take off
Calculate the landing performance of an aircraft
Calculate the climb performance of an aircraft
2
Types of TO/L
Conventional
Short
Super short
Extremely short
Vertical
Rocket assisted
M.
aculty
S. Ramaiah
of Engineering
University
& Technology
of Applied Sciences
3
Conventional TO/L
Take off using a conventional runway

Ground roll distance is determined by the requirement
to clear a 50ft (35ft for commercial) obstacle
Land on a conventional runway and decelerate

after clearing a 50ft obstacle
Flare is a deceleration maneuver to reduce
airspeed and altitude
4
M.
aculty
S. Ramaiah
of Engineering
University
& Technology
of Applied Sciences
Short TO/L
Take off and clear 50 foot obstacle in between
1000 and 1500 ft
Land and stop between 1000-1500 ft after
clearing 50 foot obstacle
Cessna
182
Aerostar 600
M.
aculty
S. Ramaiah
of Engineering
University
& Technology
of Applied Sciences
De Havilland Canada Dash 7

5
Super Short TO/L

Take off and clear 50 foot obstacle in between
500 and 1000 ft
Land and stop between 500-1000 ft after clearing
50 foot obstacle
SSTOL concept from

Advanced Composites
M.
aculty
S. Ramaiah
of Engineering
University
& Technology
of Applied Sciences
Anronov AN28
Great Lakes Sport Trainer
6
Extremely Short TO/L

Take off and clear 50 foot obstacle in under 500 ft
Land and stop under 500 ft after clearing 50 foot
obstacle
ESTOL
Sherpha
K650T
Canaero
Toucan
Aeronca Champion
M.
aculty
S. Ramaiah
of Engineering
University
& Technology
of Applied Sciences
7
Vertical TO/L
No need for runway or obstacle avoidance
requirement
Aircraft can take off and land without the need for
a runway
F35
M.
aculty
S. Ramaiah
of Engineering
University
& Technology
of Applied Sciences
The Harrier and V-22 Osprey Vertical Takeoff

Vehicles
8
Rocket-assisted TO/L
The use of rockets (usually solid rockets) to
shorten takeoff distance
C130
To decrease landing distance use rockets opposed

to direction of flight to fall out of the sky.
M.
aculty
S. Ramaiah
of Engineering
University
& Technology
of Applied Sciences
9
Take-off and Landing

Take-off Field Length
The take-off field length is generally split
into three sections:
Take-off Distance: The ground distance
required from brakes release at the start of
the runway, accelerating from rest until the
aircraft reaches a 'screen' height above the
runway.
Take-off Run: The ground distance required
from brakes release at the start of the
runway, accelerating from rest until the
aircraft reaches a point between lift-off and
a 'screen' height above the runway. This 10
Take off Field Length

Accelerate-Stop Distance: The
ground distance required from brakes
release till the aircraft reaches a
decision speed and then the brakes
are applied until the aircraft comes to
a complete stop.
Ground
Segment
V=0
Airborne Segment
VLOF
V2
Climb
V2
Transition
Air Acceleration
Ground Run
L1
L2
L3
L
L4
11
Take off Distance Components

The take-off distance can be split into
four different phases:
Ground acceleration
Rotation phase
Transition phase
Initial climb out to screen
Typically, the aircraft take-off

manoeuvres corresponding to the
take-off distance phases listed above
can be split as seen in figure
12

1. Ground acceleration until lift-off
speed
2. Air acceleration until climb safety
speed
3. Transition to climb
Speed
JAR25
4. Climb to required altitude
Decision speed (V1)
V1 > VEF > Vmcg
Rotation speed (VR)
V R > V1
VR > 1.05Vmca
Minimum take-off safety

speed (V2)
V2 > 1.2Vs
V2 > 1.1Vmca
13

V2
VR VLOF
V1
VMCG
VMCA
Before the aircraft becomes airborne
the aircraft is accelerating along the ground

until rotation at the rotation speed (VR)
transition to lift-off speed (VLOF)
and climb out to achieve take-off safety
speed (V2) at the screen, usually 35 ft.
14
Takeoff : Ground Run

To calculate the ground roll, we need
to write the equations of motion for
the vehicle as it moves down the
runway.
See figure below
15

The forces that act on it are the
aerodynamic forces of
Lift and Drag (L and D), the thrust force
(T),
The ground normal force (R) and the
ground friction force (R), where is
the coefficient of rolling friction.
We can now write the equations of

motion along the runway and
perpendicular to it.
16
17
Friction Coefficients
()
Runway Surface
Friction Coefficients
()
CONCRETE
wet
dry
0.03 - 0.035
0.04 - 0.05
Grass
wet
dry
0.07 - 0.1
0.09 - 0.13
0.05 - 0.055
sand
0.2 - 0.3
Hard Snow
Dry Soft
Ground
18

Re-arranging we have
During takeoff, high lift devices like Flaps, Slats etc

are deployed and the landing gear is also exposed.
Here C Lg and C Dg refer to lift and drag coefficients
of the aircraft in such a configuration.
Obviously both the coefficients are large
19

In order to be able to integrate the above
equations, we need some functional
relationships. We assume that Thrust T
depends on V as follows
Where:
T0 = Thrust a zero airspeed (Static Thrust)
T = Thrust at airspeed V
a = constant that can be positive, negative or zero
Substituting the above assumption into

the equations derived earlier and
collecting terms of V 2
20
Here, A and B are defined as:
21

In the previous slide we had shown
ding both sides by V and realising V = (ds/dt) and rearranging we have
ere if we assume A and B to be constant as a first approximation,

he above equation for ds can be integrated between V1 and V2
22
Here we consider the case of staring

from rest then the above equation
simplifies to
Where, A and B are defined as:
23

As before we want to find the
condition when S is minimum
This happens when we have
Maximum value for A which depends on
Thrust/weight ratio and friction
coefficient
Minimum value for B, here we have
control only over C Lg and C Dg
Reduce this by cleaner aircraft
24

Improve C L g by better high lift
devices and also higher angle of a/c
during ground run
Simply making the front landing gear
taller achieves this !!
We can find the optimum value by

differentiating and equating to zero
25
Takeoff : Ground Effect

When an aircraft is flying near the ground
its efficiency improves
Because of interference between the
horse-shoe vortex and ground
One of the methods for correcting for
ground effect is to modify value of K
by
where
h = height of the wing above the ground
b = wingspan
e = Oswald efficiency factor
26
Landing Run
The opposite of the takeoff procedure is
the landing procedure.
Just as in the takeoff, the landing
maneuver consists of two parts:
The terminal glide over a 50 ft obstacle
to touchdown
The landing ground run
Some calculations include a flare from the
landing glide to the touchdown.
However, for a maximum performance
landing (short field landing procedure),
very little flare is used.
27
Landing Run
Here we will neglect the flare portion of
landing and assume the aircraft touches
down at slightly higher speed than it would
after flaring.
The equations of motion governing the
landing ground run are the same as those
for takeoff.
However, the constants A and B can be
quite different.
Thrust can be zero or even negative
(reverse thrust)
The runway rolling friction can be much
28
larger due to braking.
Landing Run
The boundary conditions are different
At the beginning of the ground roll the
velocity is that at touchdown, VTD
At the end of the ground run, the
velocity is V2, usually zero
Differential equation of motion for

the landing run is the same as that
for takeoff:
For V 2 = 0, we have
Results are different
29
Balance Field Length

In order for a multi-engine commercial
aircraft to takeoff from a runway, the
runway must at least be as long as the
Balanced Field Length (BFL).
BFL is determined by considering two
options available to the pilot if an engine
fails.
continue the takeoff on the remaining
engines to clear the 50 ft (15m) obstacle
and establish a takeoff distance
apply the brakes as soon as possible after
the engine failure and to bring the aircraft
to a halt in some distance.
30
Balanced Field Length

1. Assuming a speed (and distance along
the runway) when that the engine failure
occurs.
2. Continue the takeoff on the remaining
engines and compute the additional
distance for the vehicle to clear a 50 ft
obstacle, determining the takeoff
distance
3. Starting with the speed assumed in (1),
assume two additional seconds go by and
then
the engines are shut down, brakes
31
Balanced Field Length

4. Compare the distance in (2) with that in
(3).
If the distance to stop is shorter than the

distance to fly over the 50 ft obstacle,
increase the guess in step (1).
If the distance to stop is shorter than that
required to clear the 50 ft obstacle, then
decrease the failure airspeed in step (1).
. Continue this procedure until the total

takeoff distance and the total distance to
stop are the same.
. This distance will be the balance field
length, and the associated velocity found
32
is called the critical engine failure speed
Flight Test Basics

All TO/L data recorded throughout entire flight test program
Tests devoted to TO/L done at:
Various gross weights
Clean and several dirty configurations
Standard to contaminated runway conditions
Must rely on statistical average of as many tests as
possible
Greatly affected by factors that cannot be measured
and properly accounted for
Typically delayed in flight test program b/c of amount of
support and time required
M.
aculty
S. Ramaiah
of Engineering
University
& Technology
of Applied Sciences
33
High-Speed Taxi Test

Conducted prior to any TO/L tests due to:
Always present possibility of a refused takeoff in those
tests
Needed to determine parameters used in TO/L tests
Parameters:
Thrust transients
787 High Speed Taxi Test: Reached 100
knots first test, VR actually about 150
Drag
knots
Rolling Cf
Ground Handling
M.
aculty
S. Ramaiah
of Engineering
University
& Technology
of Applied Sciences
34
Takeoff Critical Locations

Vmc = minimum control speed (OEI)
V1 = critical engine failure recognition
speed
VR = rotate speed
Vlo = liftoff speed
V2 = cleared obstacle speed
M.
aculty
S. Ramaiah
of Engineering
University
& Technology
of Applied Sciences
35
Rejected Takeoff Test

Rejected Takeoff Distance: The distance required for the
vehicle to stop from full throttle at V1 speed for a specified
altitude, weight, and configuration.
Also known as aborted or refusal takeoff
M.
aculty
S. Ramaiah
of Engineering
University
& Technology
of Applied Sciences
36

To reduce risk to multi-million dollar aircraft,
brakes are first tested individually in a
simulated environment.
M.
aculty
S. Ramaiah
of Engineering
University
& Technology
of Applied Sciences
37

Full scale aircraft test
- Aircraft is accelerated to V1 at max
throttle
- A 3 second delay given to simulate pilot
time to recognize situation
- Engines are set to max reverse and
brakes are applied
M.
aculty
S. Ramaiah
of Engineering
University
& Technology
of Applied Sciences
38
Aircraft Steady Gliding Flight
M.
aculty
S. Ramaiah
of Engineering
University
& Technology
of Applied Sciences
39
Aircraft Steady Level Flight
M.
aculty
S. Ramaiah
of Engineering
University
& Technology
of Applied Sciences
40
Steady Climbing Flight
M.
aculty
S. Ramaiah
of Engineering
University
& Technology
of Applied Sciences
41
Steady Climbing, Descending Turn
M.
aculty
S. Ramaiah
of Engineering
University
& Technology
of Applied Sciences
42
Climbing Flight
is angle between T
and Centre line
M.
aculty
S. Ramaiah
of Engineering
University
& Technology
of Applied Sciences
43
Climbing Flight small angle

approximation
M.
aculty
S. Ramaiah
of Engineering
University
& Technology
of Applied Sciences
44
Climbing Flight
M.
aculty
S. Ramaiah
of Engineering
University
& Technology
of Applied Sciences
45
Climbing Flight Max Angle of climb
M.
aculty
S. Ramaiah
of Engineering
University
& Technology
of Applied Sciences
46
Climbing Flight Max Angle of climb
M.
aculty
S. Ramaiah
of Engineering
University
& Technology
of Applied Sciences
47
Climbing Flight R/C
M.
aculty
S. Ramaiah
of Engineering
University
& Technology
of Applied Sciences
48
Climbing Flight R/C

For our idealized jet airplane, best rate of
climb does not occur at minimum power
required
Maximum rate of climb occurs at the
velocity where excess power is greatest
The velocity for maximum rate of climb is
determined for any aircraft as follows :
Plot power required and available versus
true airspeed
Choose the velocity where the distance
between the two curves is greatest.
49
M.
aculty
S. Ramaiah
of Engineering
University
& Technology
of Applied Sciences
Climbing Flight
M.
aculty
S. Ramaiah
of Engineering
University
& Technology
of Applied Sciences
50
Climbing Flight Max R\C
M.
aculty
S. Ramaiah
of Engineering
University
& Technology
of Applied Sciences
51
Climbing Flight Effect of altitude
M.
aculty
S. Ramaiah
of Engineering
University
& Technology
of Applied Sciences
52
Climbing Flight Effect of altitude

Typical Thrust and Power change
with altitude
Power required reduces as
density drops hence Drag
reduces with altitude
However, Power available drops
faster, hence R/C decreases with
altitude
M.
aculty
S. Ramaiah
of Engineering
University
& Technology
of Applied Sciences
53
Climbing Flight Propeller aircraft
M.
aculty
S. Ramaiah
of Engineering
University
& Technology
of Applied Sciences
54
Climbing Flight Jet Aircraft
M.
aculty
S. Ramaiah
of Engineering
University
& Technology
of Applied Sciences
55
Ceiling
The ceiling is the altitude at which R/C has
reached some minimum value
Absolute ceiling
Is defined as the altitude at which the R/C = 0
Is dictated when PA is just tangent to the PR
curve
Service ceiling
is defined as that altitude where R/Cmax = 100
ft/min, is the practical upper limit for steady, level
flight
M.
aculty
S. Ramaiah
of Engineering
University
& Technology
of Applied Sciences
56
Ceiling
Procedure
calculate values of R/Cmax for different
altitudes, plot R/Cmax versus altitude
extrapolate this latter curve to 100 fpm and
0 fpm to get the the service and absolute
ceilings
M.
aculty
S. Ramaiah
of Engineering
University
& Technology
of Applied Sciences
57
Time to Height
M.
aculty
S. Ramaiah
of Engineering
University
& Technology
of Applied Sciences
58
Example: F-15 K
Weapon launched from an F-15 fighter by a small
two stage rocket, carries a heat-seeking Miniature
Homing Vehicle (MHV) which destroys target by
direct impact at high speed (kinetic energy
weapon)
F-15 can bring ALMV under the ground track of its
target, as opposed to a ground-based system,
which must wait for a target satellite to overfly its
launch site.
59
Gliding Relations
60
Gliding Relations
61
Maximum Gliding Range
62
Maximum Gliding Range
63
Sink Rate
64
Sink Rate
65
L/D and Velocity for min sink

rate
66
Mustang Example
67
Example: High aspect ratio

glider
To maximize range, smallest q occurs at (L/D)max

A modern sailplane may have a glide ratio as high as 60:1
So q = tan-1(1/60) ~ 1
68
R/C Example
Use the vehicle characteristics for the very large
capacity transport aircraft A380
Estimate the rate of climb for this aircraft at two
distinct points in the climb profile:
600 meters (2,000 feet) and 210 knots IAS

8,000 meters (26,200 feet) and 290 knots
- IAS
Estimate the thrust produced by the engines under
both conditions
Find the Lift to Drag ratio for both conditions
Assume the International Standard

Atmosphere applies to both aircraft states69
R/C Example
An aircraft similar in size and performance as the
Airbus A380
Four turbofan engines each developing

34,400 kg (338,000 N) at sea level
Maximum takeoff mass is 540,000 kg.
(1.188 million pounds)
70
R/C Example
Visualize the scene and sketch a free body diagram
of the system
For this analysis we will ignore the second

term in the Right Hand Side
(RHS) of the differential equation (acceleration
term)
The pilot is interested in climbing as fast

as possible
using all the engine thrust to climb
71
R/C Example
Aircraft is treated a point mass for this
calculation
And we treat both start and end points
600 m
600 m
72
R/C Example
Step 1: Estimate true airspeed using
atmospheric model
Step 2: Estimate the lift coefficient
needed to sustain flight using the
basic lift equation
Step 3: Estimate drag coefficient
Step 4: Estimate total drag (D)
Step 5: Estimate the thrust
produced by the engines at altitude
(T)
73
R/C Example
Using the standard expression to
estimate the true mach number of the
aircraft at altitude,
The true mach number is 0.3267, the speed of sound at
600 meters is 337.96 m/s and the density of air is 1.156 k /
m 3.
The true airspeed (TAS) is 110.41 m/s or 214.6 knots

Use the fundamental lift equation to estimate the lift
coefficient under the known flight condition
74
R/C Example
The lift coefficient need for flight is
calculated
The Drag coefficient is computed
using the Drag polar
CD0 is interpolated from values
75
R/C Example
Thrust is always given with
dependencies on Mach number and
Altitude
Sea level and static thrust is the highest
76
R/C Example
77
R/C Example
78
R/C Example
79
R/C Example
80
R/C at 8000 m
81
R/C : L/D calculation
82
R/C Example
83
R/C Observations
R/C is highest at sea level and low
Mach number
maximum thrust is available
Reduces non-linearly with increasing

altitude
depends on density drop
tapers of to zero as it nears the service
altitude
R/C is also affected by aircraft Weight

and Climb speed.
Next slide shows the effect of weight84
Effect of Weight on R/C
85
Effect of Temperature on R/C
86
Summary
In this session following topics were discussed:
Take off and landing requirements of different types
of aircraft
Take off performance of an aircraft
Balanced field length requirements for aircraft take
off
Landing performance of an aircraft
Climb performance of an aircraft
87

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Session 04

Aircraft Accelerated Flight 2

aculty of Engineering & Technology

aculty of Engineering & Technology

Take off using a conventional runway

Land on a conventional runway and decelerate

M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences

De Havilland Canada Dash 7

Super Short TO/L

SSTOL concept from

Great Lakes Sport Trainer

Extremely Short TO/L

The Harrier and V-22 Osprey Vertical Takeoff

To decrease landing distance use rockets opposed

Take-off and Landing

aculty of Engineering & Technology

M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences

Take off Field Length

aculty of Engineering & Technology

Take off Distance Components

Typically, the aircraft take-off

aculty of Engineering & Technology

Take off Distance Components

V1 > VEF > Vmcg

Rotation speed (VR)

Minimum take-off safety

aculty of Engineering & Technology

Take off Distance Components

Before the aircraft becomes airborne

the aircraft is accelerating along the ground

aculty of Engineering & Technology

Takeoff : Ground Run

aculty of Engineering & Technology

Takeoff : Ground Run

We can now write the equations of

aculty of Engineering & Technology

Takeoff : Ground Run

aculty of Engineering & Technology

aculty of Engineering & Technology

Takeoff : Ground Run

During takeoff, high lift devices like Flaps, Slats etc

aculty of Engineering & Technology

Takeoff : Ground Run

Substituting the above assumption into

aculty of Engineering & Technology

M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences

Takeoff : Ground Run

Here, A and B are defined as:

aculty of Engineering & Technology

Takeoff : Ground Run

ding both sides by V and realising V = (ds/dt) and rearranging we have

ere if we assume A and B to be constant as a first approximation,

aculty of Engineering & Technology

Takeoff : Ground Run

Here we consider the case of staring

aculty of Engineering & Technology

Takeoff : Ground Run

aculty of Engineering & Technology

Takeoff : Ground Run

We can find the optimum value by

aculty of Engineering & Technology

Takeoff : Ground Effect

aculty of Engineering & Technology

aculty of Engineering & Technology