THE DIGESTIVE

SYSTEM

 The GI tract

(gastrointestinal tract)

The muscular alimentary

canal
Mouth (Teeth &
tongue)
Pharynx
Esophagus
Stomach
Small intestine
Large intestine
Anus

The accessory

digestive organs

Supply secretions
contributing to the
breakdown of food
Salivary glands
Gallbladder
Liver

The Digestive Process

Ingestion

Taking in food through the mouth

Propulsion (movement of food)

Swallowing
Peristalsis propulsion by alternate

contraction &relaxation

Mechanical digestion

Chewing
Churning in stomach
Mixing by segmentation

Chemical digestion

By secreted enzymes: see later

Absorption

Transport of digested end products into

blood and lymph in wall of canal

Defecation

Elimination of indigestible substances

from body as feces

Typical Pattern of Layers in

Digestive Tract Walls
1.

2.

3.

4.

Mucosa (lining of lumen)

a. Epithelium = varies with location: stratified squamous in the
mouth, esophagus, and anus; simple columnar in the stomach and
intestines
b.
Lamina propria = loose FECT
c.
+/- Muscularis mucosae (thin) - smooth muscle

Submucosa
Loose to moderately dense FECT
Contains submucosal plexus

Muscularis externa
Smooth muscle along most of the gut
Skeletal muscle near both ends of the gut
Usually consists of inner circular and outer longitudinal layers

Adventitia or Serosa
Adventitia = loose FECT (on organ surfaces embedded in connective
tissue) Serosa = loose FECT + mesothelium (on organ surfaces
exposed to body cavities)

Enteric Nervous System

(ENS)
Composed of two major intrinsic nerve plexuses both

containing: sensory neurons, parasympathetic ganglionic

neurons, sympathetic postganglionic fibers

Submucosal Plexus

Found in submucosa
Innervates the mucosa and submuscosa and regulates glands

and smooth muscle of muscularis mucosa

Myenteric plexus:

Major nerve supply that controls GI tract mobility

Found in between the circular and liongitudinal layers of muscle

in the muscularis mucosa and innervates it

Muscle movements coordinated by ENS:

Myenteric plexus can coordinate local responses independent of

autonomic nervous system or

Innervated primarily by parasympathetic division of ANS, when
active, increases muscular activity
Sympathetic activity decreases muscular activity, constricts
blood vessels here

The Oral
Cavity

Is bounded by lips, cheeks, palate, and

tongue
Has the oral orifice as its anterior opening
Is continuous with the oropharynx
Figure 24
6

Oral
Mucosa
Lining of oral cavity has a

stratified squamous
epithelium
Layer of slightly keratinized
cells covers only regions
exposed to severe abrasion
(gums, hard palate, dorsal
tongue)
Lining of cheeks, lips, and
inferior surface of tongue is
relatively thin,
nonkeratinized, and delicate
The lamina propria (chorion)
is a very thin layer of loose
FECT occurs at the base of
the epithelium in most
areas. Most of the deeper
connective tissue is
moderately dense FECT or

Oral Cavity
Structures
Lips (Labia)
overly orbicularis oris
mucosa of each cheek is continuous with that of the
lips
Vermillion border or red border lies between
highly keratinized skin of face and mucosa of mouth.
It needs moisture
Cheeks
Overly buccinator muscles

Vestibule: space between the cheeks (or lips) and

the teeth
Gingivae (Gums): ridges of oral mucosa

surround base of each tooth on alveolar processes of

maxillary bones and mandible

Uvula: a dangling process that helps prevent food

from entering pharynx prematurely

The Tongue
The tongue is covered by oral mucosa. The epithelium on the upper surface

is keratinized in places, particularly on the tips of filiform papillae. The

chorion contains mucous glands og Weber.
The tongue contains a core of skeletal muscle arranged in bundles. The
bundles run in 3 planes at right angles to each other (i.e. in X, Y, and Z
geometric axes) allowing movement of the tongue in almost any direction
and allowing delicate controlled changes in the shape of the tongue.
The upper surface of the tongue (the epithelium plus the adjacent lamina
propria) forms numerous finger- like papillae which are classified into 3
categories.

(1) Filiform Papillae

(a) Pointed tip

(b) Heavily keratinized epithelium

(c) No taste buds

(d) Most numerous type of papilla

(2) Fungiform Papillae

(a) Flattened apex

(b) Moderately keratinized epithelium

(c) Apical taste buds

(d) Second most numerous type

Lingual
papilae

(3) Circumvallate Papillae

(a) Flattened apex

(b) Moderately keratinized epithelium

(c) Lateral taste buds in the papilla and in the surrounding

structures

(d) Surrounded by a groove with compound serous glands

(von Ebner's glands) secreting into its base

(e) Least numerous type of papilla

Teet
h
The tooth can be divided into two main

areas: the crown and the root.

Most of the hard tissue in teeth is dentine,
a special calcified tissue, derived from
mesenchyme. The dentine in the root is
covered by a layer of cementum, calcified
tissue derived from mesenchyme. The
tooth is then connected to bone by the
periodontal ligament, which has wide
bundles of collagen fibres, and is
embedded in bony ridge called alveolar
ridge.
Teeth is made up of three layers,
enamel, dentine and a pulp cavity. The
crown is protected by layer of enamel, a
very hard, highly mineralised tissue, which
is derived from ectoderm. Cementum,
dentine and enamel differ from bone, in
that they are not vascularised. Enamel
also does not have collagen as its main
consituent. It is made up of crystals or
prisms of calcium phosphate. The centre of
tooth is made up of a pulp cavity that
extends down through the roots as a root
canal. This region contains the nerve and
blood supply to the tooth.
Gums, or gingiva is the name for the oral
mucosa that covers the tooth. At the
gingival crevice (or sulcus), the cells in the
epithelium of the gum adhere to the tooth

Structure of a
tooth
Dentine is made by odontoblasts,

that lie on its inner border. Production

of dentine is limited to the pulpal
surface. About 90% of dentine is type I
collagen, and about 70% of wet weight
is hydroxyapatite.
Odontoblasts are tall columnar
secretory cells. Their secretory
processes are embedded in the matrix,
which is imprgnated with parallel
dentine tubules. Dentine is laid down,
and then calcified. Thus there is a thin
layer of 'pre-dentine' which is not
calcified between the dentine and
odontoblasts.
Enamel is made by ameloblasts, tall
columnar ectodermally derived cells. It
is produced before the tooth erupts.
Each ameloblast has an elongated tip
called a Tomes process, that secretes
the organic matrix of an enamel rod.
96% of a tooth is mineralised. As the
ameloblasts die when the tooth

The
Pharynx
The pharynx is the crossing of

the respiratory and digestive

pathways. It has three parts,
named for the structure that is
anterior to that part:
nasopharynx is posterior
to the nasal cavity
oropharynx is posterior
to the oral cavity
laryngopharynx is
posterior to the larynx
The landmarks to officially
demarcate these are the soft
palate and epiglottis.

The pharynx- histological

structure
Mucosa
Epithelium- stratified

squamous without
keratinization in the oro=
and laryngo=pharynx and
respiratory in the
nasopharynx
Lamina propria (chorion)loose FECT with small mixt
salivary glands and
lymphoid infiltrates (see
pharyngeal tonsil)
Fibrous membrane- named
the pharyngeal fascia- formes
the skeleton of the pharinx and
it is composed of collagen and
ellastic fibers.
The muscularis externastriated muscle:
Elevator longitudinal
muscles
Constrictor oblique muscles

ESOPHA
The esophagus is a muscular
tube that connects the pharynx with the
GUS
stomach. It is the first portion of the digestive tract that has the fourlayered structure: mucosa, submucosa, muscularis externa,
adventitia.

lume
n

ESOPHA
Characteristic features of the esophagus relate to its function:
GUS
--epithelium is stratified squamous non-keratinized, providing a moist surface resistant
to friction, conducive to movement of swallowed boluses toward the stomach
--muscularis externa transitions from skeletal (upper portion) to smooth muscle (middle
and lower segments).this is a gradual transition, so the upper-middle region contains a
mixture of skeletal and smooth muscle
--a thick muscularis mucosa
--esophageal glands for lubrication

ESOPHA
Mucosa contains nonkeratinized, stratified squamous epithelium and loose FECT
GUS
chorion

Mucosa and submucosa both form large folds that extend the length of the
esophagus and allow for expansion
Muscularis mucosae consists of irregular layer of smooth muscle
Submucosa contains submucosal esophageal glands:
produce mucous secretion which reduces friction between bolus and esophageal
lining
Muscularis externa:
has usual inner circular and outer longitudinal layers
Superiormost portion has skeletal muscle fibers, changes to smooth muscle
inferiorly

The upper portion of the esophagus, being continuous with the pharynx, contains skeletal
muscle in the muscularis externa. This will transition into smooth muscle about 1/3 of the
way toward the stomach, so that the muscularis externa in the lower portion of the
esophagus is entirely smooth muscle.

The muscularis mucosa has no such

transition; it is always smooth
muscle, from the cranial esophagus
to the colon.

STOMACH
The stomach is a dilated portion of the GI tract that accepts food from a meal and slowly releases it
into the duodenum. It also is involved in food breakdown, producing pepsin and HCl. Numerous
mucous cells protect the mucosal lining from these harsh agents.

As you are aware, the stomach can be

divided into four major regions:
--cardia
--fundus
--body
--pylorus

HISTOLOGICALLY, we can divide the stomach into three

parts:
--cardia
--fundus (which includes fundus and body)
--pylorus
The cardia and the pylorus region are similar to each
other, as are the body and fundus.

Stomach-mucosa
The mucosa forms longitudinal folds or rugae.
a. Epithelium

(1) Mainly simple columnar; may be pseudostratified columnar in

regions containing some types of enterochromaffin (APUD) cells
(unicellular endocrine glandular epithelium)
(2) Most cells of the lumen lining are mucous- secreting so the lining
epithelium may be called a sheet gland
(3) Enterochromaffin cells (or APUD cells) are small with basally
located light cytoplasm and dark nuclei. At least some of these
cells extend a sensory process to the luminal surface. Some may
have acidophilic granules at the basal end.

b. Lamina propria - loose FECT

c. Muscularis mucosae - inner circular and outer

longitudinal smooth muscle layers, frequently in bundles

The surface of the stomach is relatively

smooth (i.e. it lacks villi). There are
openings of the internal surface that lead
to deep holes called gastric pits. The
inferior portion of each pit is a narrowed
isthmus. Projecting from the bottom of
the pits are two or more gastric glands.
The gland can be divided into a neck and
fundus (base), terms which will be used
to help identify predominant cell types in
those regions.
The glands are tightly packed, with little
lamina propria between them.

The mucosa contains gastric glands (simple tubular glands) which are referred
to as cardiac glands, fundic glands, or pyloric glands based on the gland
structure and the region of the stomach in which the gland is normally found.
Pure cardiac and pyloric glands would contain only mucus-secreting cells plus
occasional enterochromaffin cells while fundic glands contain multiple exocrine
cell types.
(a) Cardiac glands are branched tubular glands which occur in a narrow zone
near the esophageal-stomach junction. They are usually shorter and less
coiled than pyloric glands.
(b) Pyloric glands are located near the pyloric region of the stomach. These
branched tubular glands are usually longer and more highly coiled than
cardiac glands.

(c) Fundic glands occur throughout most of the stomach. These branched tubular
glands contain three exocrine cell types plus numerous solitary endocrine cells.
[1] Exocrine cell types
[a] Chief cells (or zymogenic or peptic cells)
- relatively columnar cells with basal nuclei, basophilic basal cytoplasm and
acidophilic apical cytoplasm containing acidophilic secretory granules
- serous secretory cells which secrete pepsinogen
- located in the deeper 1/3 of the glands
[b] Parietal cells (or oxyntic cells)
- spherical or triangular cells with central nuclei and canaliculi and with
acidophilic cytoplasm
- secrete HCl and intrinsic factor
- occur singly or in small groups throughout the deeper 2/3 of the glands

[c] Mucous cells

- columnar cells with pale staining cytoplasm
- mucous secretory cells
- located throughout the glands but predominate in the upper 1/3 of the
glands
[2] Enteroendocrine cells (enterochromaffin cells)
- different cells secrete a variety of locally acting hormones (mostly peptides
or proteins such as secretin, cholecystokinin, secretin, and gastric inhibitory
peptide) which coordinate gut functions. Some of the secretory granules
may be acidophilic while others may not stain well.
- some of these cells have the properties of enterochromaffin cells also called
APUD (amine precursor uptake and decarboxylation) cells

2.
Submucosa loose to moderately
dense FECT

3.
Muscularis externa two or three
(most common) layers of smooth
muscle

a. Where two layers are present

they are organized into inner
circular and outer longitudinal
layers.

b. Where three layers are present

they are organized into inner
oblique, middle circular, and outer
longitudinal layers.

c. As is the case with other "pearshaped" or oval organs, the

muscle tends to run in bundles
rather than in distinct layers.

Small intestineregions
SI is longest part of dig. tube
Duodenum (short, 12 inches)
fixed shape & position
Mixing bowl for chyme

Jejunum (2.5 m long)

Most of digestion

Ileum (longest at 3.5 m)

Most of absorption, ends in

Ileocecal valve slit valve into large intestine (colon)

Small intestinestructure
The main functions of the small

intestine are digestion, absorption of

food and production of gastrointestinal
hormones. The small intestine is 4-6
metres long in humans.
To aid in digestion and absorption:
the small intestine secretes
enzymes and has mucous
producing glands. The pancreas and
liver also deliver their exocrine
secretions into the duodenum.
The mucosa is highly folded.
large circular folds called plicae

circulares (shown in the diagram to

the right), most numerous in the upper
part of the small intestine
smaller folds called villi, which are
finger like mucosal projections, about
1mm long.
the lining columnar epithelial cells
have fine projections on their apical
surfaces called microvilli.

Together, these folds provide a huge

surface area for absorption. Between

the villi there are crypts, called crypts
of Lieberkuhn, which extend down to
the muscularis mucosae. These

Small intestinemucosa
The mucosa of the small intestine is lined by a simple columnar epithelium

which consists primarily of absorptive cells (enterocytes), with scattered

goblet cells and occasionalenteroendocrine cells. In crypts, the epithelium also
includes Paneth cells and stem cells.
Absorptive cells (enterocytes) are responsible for absorbing nutrients from
the intestinal lumen and transporting across the epithelium to the
lamina propria, whence they diffuse into capillaries.
The brush border of the intestinal epithelium not only facilitates
absorption, it also provides a site of attachment for pathogens.
Goblet cells secrete mucus to promote movement and effective diffusion
of gut contents.
Enteroendocrine cells secrete hormones to regulate secretion into the GI
tract.
Paneth cells, located at the bottoms of the crypts, secrete lysosomal
enzymes and other factors into the crypt lumen. These agents presumably
help protect the crypt epithelium with its vital stem cells.
Stem cells line the walls of the crypts and continually replenish the
intestinal epithelium, completely replacing all the absorptive and goblet
cells approximately once every four days.
Lamina propria of each villus is richly supplied with capillaries and also
includes a single lacteal, for transporting absorbed nutrients. Lamina propria
also includes thin strands of smooth muscle (presumably allowing some motility
for individual villi, to encourage thorough fluid mixing at the absorptive surface)
and numerous white blood cells.
The muscularis mucosa of the small intestine forms a thin layer (only a few

Small intestine
The submucosa of the small intestine is

relatively unspecialized FECT, except in the

duodenum where it is packed with the
mucous-secreting Brunner's glands.
Muscularis externa of the small intestine
has the standard layers of inner circular and
outer longitudinal smooth muscle, with
ganglia of Auerbach's plexus scattered in
between..
Over most of the small intestine, the outer
layer is a serosa attached to mesentery. The
exception is the duodenum, which is

Small intestineparticularities
The duodenum is readily distinguished from other regions of the small

intestine by the presence of submucosal Brunner's glands, which may

pack the submucosa so completely that the typical submucosal
connective tissue is obscured. Brunner's glands provide abundant
alkaline mucus to neutralize the acid contents entering from the
stomach. Brunner's glands and the stomach's pyloric glands thus share
a similar function. In fact, Brunner's glands look like pyloric glands that
have enlarged and expanded into the submucosa of the duodenum.
Villi are rather flatter in the duodenum than in the jejunum, and plicae
are less frequent.
The jejunum is the longest and most "typical" region of the small
intestine. It has no conspicuous characteristics of its own, except for the
absence of those features which characterize the duodenum and ileum (
Brunner's glands and Peyer's patches, respectively). Villi are rather
longer and more finger-like in the jejunum than in the duodenum, and
plicae are usually apparent.
The ileum has proportionally more goblet cells than more proximal
sections of the small intestine. (The proportion of goblet cells generally
increases as one progresses down the GI tract, with the highest
proportion found in the lower tract.) The ileum also displays an increase
in the amount of mucosal lymphoid tissue, which forms conspicuous
clusters of lymph nodules, called Peyer's patches.

Duodenum-mucosa and Brunner

glands

Ileum-Peyers
patches

The Large Intestine

Also called large bowel
Horseshoe-shaped, about 1.5 meters long

and 7.5 cm wide

Extends from end of ileum to anus
Lies inferior to stomach and liver
Frames the small intestine
Functions

Reabsorption of water [the last 15-20%]

Compaction of intestinal contents into feces
Absorption of important vitamins produced by

bacteria
Storage of fecal material prior to defecation

Parts of the Large

Intestine
Cecum:
the pouchlike first portion
Has wormlike appendix projecting from it
Colon:
the largest portion
Rectum:
the last 15 cm of digestive tract
Anal canal

Ileocecal Valve
Attaches the Ileum to the medial surface of

cecum
an expanded pouch
receives material arriving from the ileum
stores materials and begins compaction
[opened by the gastoroileal reflex to receive

material from S.I.]

The Appendix
Also called

vermiform
appendix
A slender, hollow
appendage (about
9 cm long),
dominated by
lymphoid nodules
(a lymphoid organ)
Is attached to
posteromedial
surface of cecum

The Colon
Has a larger diameter (this is why it is called

large) and thinner wall than small intestine

The wall of the colon forms a series of
pocketlike pouches (haustra) giving it a
sgmented appearance
Haustra permit expansion and elongation of
colon

Colon Muscles
3 longitudinal bands of smooth muscle

(taeniae coli) run along outer surfaces of colon

deep to the serosa (similar to outer layer of
muscularis externa)
Muscle tone in taeniae coli creates the haustra

Regions of the Colon

Ascending colon
Begins at superior border of cecum
Ascends along right lateral and posterior wall of

peritoneal cavity to inferior surface of the liver

Transverse colon
Curves anteriorly from right colic flexure
Crosses abdomen from right to left
Is supported by transverse mesocolon
Is separated from anterior abdominal wall by

greater omentum

Regions of the Colon

Descending colon
Proceeds inferiorly along left side:
to the iliac fossa (inner surface of left ilium)
Is retroperitoneal, firmly attached to abdominal

wall

Sigmoid colon
S-shaped segment, about 15 cm long
Starts at sigmoid flexure
Lies posterior to urinary bladder
Is suspended from sigmoid mesocolon
Empties into rectum

The Rectum
Forms last 15 cm of digestive tract
Is an expandable organ for temporary storage

of feces
Movement of fecal material into rectum
triggers urge to defecate
Anus Is exit of the anal canal
Has keratinized epidermis like skin [anus]
[The rest of the rectum is columnar or
nonkeratinized stratified squamous]

Anal Sphincters
Internal anal sphincter:
circular muscle layer of muscularis externa
has smooth muscle cells, not under voluntary
control
External anal sphincter:
encircles distal portion of anal canal
a ring of skeletal muscle fibers, under voluntary
control

Colonmucosa

The mucosa appears smooth at the gross level because it has no villi.

Numerous straight, tubular glands are present. They extend all the way
to the muscularis mucosae. The glands and the surface are lined with
simple columnar epithelium whose cell types are as described for the
small intestine.
Paneth cells are usually absent in the adult human and enteroendocrine
cells are rare. Columnar absorptive cells and goblet cells are abundant.
Goblet cells are more prevalent in the crypts than along the surface, and
their number increases distally toward the rectum. The mucus facilitates
the passage of the increasingly solid colonic contents, and covers
bacteria and particulate matter.
The absorptive cells have short, irregular microvilli, and although they
secrete a glycocalyx, it has not been shown to contain digestive
enzymes. The absorptive cells actively transport electrolytes. Water is
also absorbed as it passively follows the electrolytes. As in the small
intestine, undifferentiated cells are found at the base of the crypts.
The lamina propria is highly cellular. It is particularly rich in lymphoid
cells and and lymph nodules may interrupt the regular spacing of the
crypts and extend into the submucosa (this is particularly evident in the
appendix). The extensive development of GALT reflects the abundance
and variety of microorganisms and noxious end products of metabolism.
As in the small intestine, lymphatic vessels form a network around the
muscularis mucosae. However, no lymph vessels extend into the lamina
propria between colonic crypts.
The muscularis mucosae has a circular and longitudinal smooth
muscle layer.

layers
The submucosa is quite dense, similar to that of the small

intestine.
The muscularis externa consists of an inner circular and outer
longitudinal layer. The inner circular layer is typical, but the outer
longitudinal layer of the colon is very thin, except for three
extremely thick longitudinal bands, called teniae coli. Bundles of
muscle from the teniae coli penetrate the circular layer at irregular
intervals. These discontinuities in the muscularis externa allow
segments of the colon to contract independently. A contraction in
one segment (2-5 cm) will peak over about 30 seconds, and
disappear during the next 60. The lumen may almost be occluded
during a contraction, allowing all the fecal matter to be in touch
with the colon wall. The fecal matter is dug into and rolled - much
like spading earth. The longitudinal layer contracts at the same
time as the circular layer. Unstimulated portions between the
contracting segments bulge outward, forming saccules or haustra.
The next contraction would be in another area. All but 80 ml of the
daily load of 450 ml of chyme are aborbed. Peristaltic movements
in the colon (longitudinal layer) result in mass movements distally
of colonic contents. They are not frequent (about once a day in a
typical person).
The entire transverse colon is covered with a serosa, whereas
parts of the ascending and descending colon have an adventitia,
which forms small pouches (appendices epiploicae) filled with fat
tissue

whai is this ??