Professional Documents
Culture Documents
temp-C
Pres
N2
NO
H2O
O2
H2S H2
NH3 HCL
300-1000
80
10
10
250-500
81
11
250-850
3-10
66
200-1100
300-1100
30-50
200-500
100-600
75
15
175-1000
72
10
12
traces
250-1350
76
10
150-1000
73
20
11
300-1450
1.5
55
23
19
70
18
0.5
37
9
6
5.5
43
200-450 20
60
20
1.Raw sulfur gases 2.SO3 gases after converter 3.Nitrous gases 4.Reformer flue gases
5.Reformed gas 6.Synthesis gas
7.Gas Turbine exhaust 8.MSW incinerator exhaust 9.Chlorinated plastics incineration 10.Fume
or VOC incinerator exhaust 11.Sulfur condenser effluent
External pres,
psig
Internal pres,
psig
0.105
0.120
0.135
0.150
0.180
575
686
800
921
1172
1147
1339
1533
1730
2137
1.75x
1.521
1.75x
1.521
1.75x
1.521
2.5x2.2
38
2.5x2.2
38
2.5x2.
238
Vel,ft/s
109
141
166
110
140
165
109
140
166
Tubes
1100
850
725
800
630
535
510
395
335
Length,ft 19.0
20.0
21.0
22.5
24.0
25.0
29.5
31.5
33.
Surf,ft2
8318
6766
6059
8351
7015
6205
8811
7286
6474
Ui
9.74
11.78
13.25
9.6
11.43
12.89
9.15
11.02
1243
P,in wc
2.50
4.4
6.3
2.6
4.4
6.2
2.5
4.3
6.2
Gas pressure
Firing
Possible
Possible
Bare tube
Superheater location
Water inventory
High
Low
Generally low
No
Yes
Multiple modules
No
Yes
Table of k values of
scale
Item
Clean
Fouled
Foul factor
0.001
0.05
(Btu/ft2hF/in)
Overall htc U
9.6
6.52
Analcite
8.8
Heat flux,Btu/ft2h
6086
4133
Calcium phospate
25
207
Calcium sulfate
16
377
577
Magnesium phospate
15
Duty,MM Btu/h
28.13
24.47
500
630
Annual loss,$
Basis
-87,800
Steam flow,lb/h
27,710
24,100
20
Silicate scale
0.6
Boiler steel
310
Fire brick
7
Insulating brick
Hcl Corrosion
Hcl also has a low acid dew point in the range of 130-150 F
and one must consider this while designing the economizer.Hcl also is responsible
for high temperature corrosion.
11
Hcl Corrosion-2
Many metals and alloys are susceptible to severe corrosion attack when exposed
to halogen gases at elevated temperatures. Halogen reacts with many metals and
forms metal halides,many of which exhibit high vapor pressures and or low
melting points. In Cl2,Hcl environments,corrosion is dependent on whether the
environment is oxidizing or reducing. In Cl2 ,iron and steel are very susceptible to
chlorination attack. Adding chromium and or nickel improves corrosion
resistance.Thus ferritic and austenitic stainless steels can resist chlorination
attack at higher temperatures than cast iron or carbon steel. Ni and Ni-bearing
alloys are significantly more resistant to chlorination attack than iron,carbon
steel,stainless steel and 800 type steels.
In oxidizing environments containing both Cl2 and O2,MO and W are detrimental
to alloys resistance to chlorination attack. In reducing environments containing
Hcl,Ni and Ni based alloys are better than iron and austenitic stainless steels.
Carbon and stainless steels are susceptible to fluorine attack at 570 F or even
lower.Ni has the best resistance to fluorine attack. HF is less corrosive than F for
most metals.
Hot corrosion proceeds in two stages. An incubation period exhibiting low
corrosion rates(formation of protective oxide layer) followed by accelerated
corrosion attack(breakdown of protective layer)
12
Compound
Melting Point of
Compounds
Use radiant furnace to cool
Melting
point,F
gases
50NaCl-26Na2So424Na2Co3
1134
65Na2So4-35Nacl
1153
NaCl
1474
Na2So4
1623
Ca2O
2257
Fe2O3
2664
NaCl-ZnCl2
504
CaCl2-PbCl2
884
14
15
183
Casing
0.5
550
Min fib
1596
Cbm
199
1556
4
1800
Ks4
4
1800
Amb temp=70 F ,emissivity=0.9,wind
vel=100 fpm
16
Minimizing Corrosion
One approach is to preheat the
incoming cold feed water to near dew
point temperature using water from exit
of economizer.Also startup and shut
down of boilers/turbines fired on oil or
waste heat units firing dirty fuels should
be on clean gas so that acid residues
may not deposit on surfaces. Steam
may also be used to preheat the
water.However the cost of the system is
more due to handling of condensate
and energy wastage.
An inexpensive way to minimize corrosion is to increase the deaerator pressure slightly so
that the feed water temperature increases.At 5 psig,the water temperature is 228 F,while at
15 psig,it is 250 F.
In oil fired gas turbines,under shut down conditions,moisture from air reacts with acid
residues on the tubes,making it dilute and corrosive. This is more so with cyclic
operation.Hence tubes should be maintained above acid dew point conditions. Duplex
steel,which is a hybrid of austenitic and ferritic steel, is sometimes used in condensate
heaters to avid corrosion.This is however very expensive.This may cost 9 times that of
carbon steel. Sometimes,it may be worth building the coil in two parts,one which operates at
17
low tube wall temperatures and then replace it as required.
Composition
Temperature,F
Sa 178a
Carbon steel
950
Sa192
Carbon steel
950
sa210A1
Carbon steel
950
sa210C
Carbon steel
950
sa213T11
1.25Cr-0.5Mo-si
1050
sa213T22
2.25Cr-1Mo
1125
sa213T91
9Cr-1Mo-V
1200
sa213TP304H
18Cr-8Ni
1400
sa213TP347H
18Cr-10Ni-Cb
1400
Sa213-TP321H
18Cr-10Ni-Ti
1400
sb407800H
33Ni-21Cr-42Fe
1500
18
19
20
A Type Boiler
21
22
23
24
Moderately dirty
gases
Multi-pass bare tube
evaporator and
economizer
Soot blowers used
Suitable for small
gas flows
25
27
28
29
31
Ideal for clean gases. Note the bare tube screen section in parallel with
a finned tube evaporator with buried/shielded superheater
32
33
34
35
Nelsons Chart
Gas bypass system is used to control exit gas temperature at low loads.As gas flow
decreases ,the exit gas temperature decreases,which is not acceptable as
performance of catalysts downstream is affected. So more flow is sent through the
bypass pipe and less through the tubes using bypass dampers. Tube size varies from
1 in to 2 in.T11 or T22 materials are commonly used considering presence of
hydrogen.
Heat flux is quite high,on the order of 100,000 Btu/ft2h due to presence of hydrogen
37
and water vapor at high gas pressure. Tube sheet is protected by refractory and
ferrules. GC 94 refracory,which is a high alumina refractory is used.
38
39
Reform
Flue gas
Gas flow,lb/h
Gas inlet temp, F
Gas exit temp, F
Gas pressure, psia
Duty, MM Btu/h
Steam, lb/h
Gas pr drop, in wc
Heat flux, Btu/ft2h
Surface area, ft2
No of tubes
Length,ft
heat tr coefficient
Max gas velocity, ft/s
Tube wall temp, F
100,000
1650
650
315
70.00
69,310
9
92,200
1566
350
15
87
68
653
100,000
1650
650
15
28.85
28,570
5
12,300
4266
1300
11
13.4
165
498
40
41
42
44
45
46
47
48
Metal Dusting
Metal dusting is the term used to describe the catastrophic degradation of
metals in carbanaceous gases at elevated temperatures,450 to 900
C.The surface becomes pitted and metal wastage is seen.The term is
derived from the appearance of pits which often contains of loose
powdery magnetic corrosion product of graphic,metal carbides and
oxides.
Rapid saturation and supersaturation of carbon in the metal matrix,
cementite formation at the surface and at grain boundaries where
nucleation is facilitated.
Cementite is stable at high carbon activities and can decompose at outer
surfaces leading to formation of carbon and metal particles,which act as
catalyst for further coke deposition
Volume change associated with these transformations generate high
internal streeses and results in disintegration of surface into a loose
powder
This process of Fe3C formation and decomposition continues till the49
Metal Dusting-2
Carburization and metal dusting can proceed when environment has
CH4,CO,CO2, H2.
CO+H2 = C+H2O 2CO=C+CO2 CH4=C+2H2
The metal dusting process is valid for low alloy ferritic steels because surface
oxide film does not retard the metal dusting process. Alloying with Cr and Si
such that (% CR +2%Si)>24 helps.Alumina has proven to resist carbon
diffusion into metal matrix. Cr diffusion rates are higher in ferrite than in
austemitic and thus protective films are likely to heal at low temperatures. This
is reason for success of high Cr 446 ferritic stainless steel in overcoming metal
dusting.Many also feel that high Ni based alloys resist metal dusting because of
the slower diffusion of carbon in nickel based austentitic matrix. However the
same mechanism will also inhibit healing of ruptured surface films by retarding
diffusion of Cr at hih Ni contents.
Alloy 800 has a high degree of resistance to metal dusting,while Alloy 600 is
subject to MD.
50
HRSG Problems
Design basis for cycling: 300 cold starts,1300 warm starts and 9000 hot starts(25 years
life).Each startup causes low cycle fatigue.ASME-sec 1 does not give reference to low cycle
fatigue..in TRD fatigue caused by thermal and pressure induced stresses is considered at
the inner edge of openings in shells. Tubes operate at a different temperature than headers
and hence thermal stresses.
During warm,hot starts,condensate forms in the superheater/reheater as tubes cool faster
than evaporator.Drains have to be installed. In a forced circulation unit,the build up of steam
pushes the condensate in the direction of steam as well as gravity is pulling it out. In the
natural circulation unit,gravity and steam flow are in opposite directions and water remains in
the tubes for a longer time,causing higher temperature differences from one tube to another.
In horizontal units,due to the steep inlet duct,the purge air does not touch the upper section
of the HRSG where combustible mixtures can be formed as their density is lower than cold
air. In vertical gas flow unit,the light gases flow out easily.
51
Corrosion mechanisms
Corrosion fatigue: Corrosion ,fatigue can work together or one can enhance the
others effect.Alternating stresses can cause cracks,which allows a path for corroding
agent to damage the surface .Or the uneven attack of a corrosive agent would create
notches and pits that can become stress enhancers and increase the potential for
fatigue cracks. CFC is a form of deterioration that can occur without concentration of a
corrosive substance. CCFC refers to cracks propagating through a metal as a result of
cyclic stresses operating in a corrosive environment. Even the protective magnetite
layer is sufficient to cause this kind of cracking in the presence of sufficient cyclic
stresses.The cracks can occur longitudinally and most always propagate in a diretcion
perpendicular to the direction of principal stress. They are straight, unbranched and
transgranular.
If the principal cyclic stress is a result of pressure fluctuations,then the cracks will be
longitudinal. If the principal cyclic stress is bending(thermal expn/contraction) then the
cracks will be transverse. Cracks seen at physical restraints.
Stress Corrosion Cracking:deterioration that occurs with concentration of a corrosive
substance(carbon steel- NaOH; stainless steel-NaOH,Chlorides) and sufficient tensile
stress(residual or applied).Occurs generally inside tubes.Cracks can be
intergranular,continuous or transgranular. Cracks can branch and spread resulting in
brittle fracture.SCC below 300F is rare.
52
HRSG Maintenance
Superheater and reheater header joints,feed water heaters,drum to downcomer joints,tube to
header joints are prone to failure due to stresses in quick startup and cycling. Low cycle thermal
stress fatigue may not have immediate effect.During cold startup,drum inner temperature
increases faster than outer.the difference causes thermal stresses.Outer surface prevents inner
from expanding causing residual tensile stresses. During hot start,the outer surface is higher now
also causing stresses.Magnitude of thermal stress in any location of pressure part is proportional
to the difference between the temperature at the location and pressure part average temperature.
If there is a soaking or hold,the stresses will relax. Shut downs are more detrimental. Whenever
yield strength is exceeded during startups load changes and shut downs,life is expended,which
can initiate a crack.For larger sized components,the stresses are more.
Casing damage [warping of liners]
Low cycle fatigue,creep and corrosion fatigue at hot end[poor drainage,venting]
Fatigue,FAC,acid dew point corrosion,stress corrosion cracking at colder end
Fouling due to ammonium salts[ dry ice cleaning,ammonia slip]
Suggestions: maintain eco flow during startups using blow down,bypass lines or recirc lines
Split eco headers and not simply baffling them.
Miminimzie oxygen ingress during startup
Proper design of tube to headers[avoid multiple tubes,combining drains,full penetration welds
etc]
54
At ends of header
Nature of damage
Longitudinal crack
Initiation site
ID
OD
ID
Orientation
Longitudinal parallel
to tube axis
Circumferential
In the tube
around toe of weld on connection
OD
morphology
Straight cracks
starting form OD
No protective
magnetite on ID
surface
type
Corrosion fatigue
Flexibility cracking
Erosion-corrosion
55
56