CH 14

14.
Energy Methods
CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
Apply energy methods to
solve problems involving
deflection
Discuss work and strain
energy, and development of
the principle of conservation
of energy
Use principle of conservation of energy to
determine stress and deflection of a member
subjected to impact
Develop the method of virtual work and
Castiglianos theorem
1
14. Energy Methods
CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
Use method of virtual and
Castiglianos theorem to
determine displacement and
slope at pts on structural
members and mechanical
elements
14. Energy Methods
CHAPTER OUTLINE
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
External Work and Strain Energy

Elastic Strain Energy for Various Types of Loading
Conservation of Energy
Impact Loading
*Principle of Virtual Work
*Method of Virtual Forces Applied to Trusses
*Method of Virtual Forces Applied to Beams
*Castiglianos Theorem
*Castiglianos Theorem Applied to Trusses
*Castiglianos Theorem Applied to Beams
3
14. Energy Methods
14.1 EXTERNAL WORK AND STRAIN ENERGY

Work of a force:
A force does work when it
undergoes a displacement dx
in same direction as the force.
Work done is a scalar, defined
as dUe = F dx.
If total displacement is x, work becomes
x
14 - 1
U e F dx
0
As magnitude of F is gradually increased from zero

to limiting value F = P, final displacement of end of
bar becomes .
4
14. Energy Methods

Work of a force:
For linear-elastic behavior of material,
F = (P/)x. Substitute into Eqn 14-1
1
14 - 2
U e P
2
Suppose that P is already applied to the bar and
another force P is now applied, so end of bar is
further displaced by an amount .
Work done by P (not P) is then
U 'e P'
14 - 3
5
14. Energy Methods

Work of a force:
When a force P is applied to the bar, followed by
the force P, total work done by both forces is
represented by the area of the entire triangle in
graph shown.
14. Energy Methods

Work of a couple moment:
A couple moment M does work when it undergoes
a rotational displacement d along its line of action.
Work done is defined as dUe = Md. If total angle of
rotational displacement is radians, then work
U e M d
0
14 - 4
If the body has linear-elastic behavior, and its

magnitude increases gradually from zero at = 0
1
to M at , then work is
14 - 5
U e M
2
7
14. Energy Methods

Work of a couple moment:
However, if couple moment already applied to the
body and other loadings further rotate the body by
an amount , then work done is
U 'e M '
14. Energy Methods

Strain energy:
When loads are applied to a body and causes
deformation, the external work done by the loads
will be converted into internal work called strain
energy. This is provided no energy is converted
into other forms.
Normal stress
A volume element subjected to normal stress z.
Force created on top and bottom faces is
dFz = z dA = z dx dy.
9
14. Energy Methods

Strain energy:
Normal stress
This force is increased gradually from
zero to dFz while element undergoes
displacement dz = z dz.
Work done is dUi = 0.5dFz dz = 0.5[z dx dy]z dz.
Since volume of element is dV = dx dy dz, we have
1
dU i z z dV
14 - 6
2
Note that dUi is always positive.
10
14. Energy Methods

Strain energy:
Normal stress
In general, for a body subjected to a uniaxial
normal stress , acting in a specified direction,
strain energy in the body is then
14 - 7
Ui
dV
V 2
If material behaves linear-elastically, then Hookes
law applies and we express it as
2
Ui
dV
V 2E
14 - 8
11
14. Energy Methods

Strain energy:
Shear stress
Shear stress cause element to deform such that
shear force dF = (dx dy) acts on top face of
element.
Resultant displacement if dz relative to bottom
face.
Vertical faces only rotate, thus shear forces on
these faces do no work.
12
14. Energy Methods

Strain energy:
Shear stress
Hence, strain energy stored in the element is
1
14 - 9
dU i dV
2
Integrating over bodys entire volume to obtain
strain energy stored in it
Ui
dV
14 - 10
V 2
Shear strain energy is always positive.
13
14. Energy Methods

Strain energy:
Shear stress
Apply Hookes law = /G,
2
Ui
dV
V 2G
14 - 11
14
14. Energy Methods

Strain energy:
Mutilaxial stress
Total strain energy in the body is therefore
1 1 1
2 x x 2 y y 2 z z
Ui
dV
V
1 xy xy 1 yz yz 1 xz xz
2
2
2
14 - 12
15
14. Energy Methods

Strain energy:
Mutilaxial stress
Eliminate the strains using generalized form of
Hookes law given by Eqns 10-18 and 10-19. After
substituting and combining terms, we have
1 2 2 2
y
z
2 x
U i x y y z x z dV 14 - 13
V
E
1
2
2
2
xy yz xz

2G
16
14. Energy Methods

Strain energy:
Mutilaxial stress
If only principal stresses 1, 2, 3
act on the element, this eqn
reduces to a simpler form,
1 2 2 2
2
3
2E 1
Ui
dV
V
1 2 2 3 1 3
14 - 14
17
14. Energy Methods

14.2 ELASTIC STRAIN ENERGY FOR VARIOUS TYPES OF LOADING
Axial load:
Consider a bar of variable
and slightly tapered
x-section, subjected to
axial load coincident with bars centroidal axis.
Internal axial force at section located from one end
is N.
If x-sectional area at this section is A, then normal
stress = N/A.
Apply Eqn 14-8, we have 2
x
N2
Ui
dV
dV
2
V 2E
V 2 EA
18
14. Energy Methods

Axial load:
Choose element or differential slice having volume
dV = Adx, general formula for strain energy in bar is
Ui
N2
dx
2 AE
14 - 15
For a prismatic bar of constant x-sectional area A,

length L and constant axial load N, integrating Eqn
14-15 gives
N 2L
14 - 16
Ui
2 AE
19
14. Energy Methods
EXAMPLE 14.1
Choose one of the 2 high-strength steel bolts to
support a tensile loading. Determine the greatest
amount of elastic strain energy that each bolt can
absorb. Bolt A has a diameter of 20 mm for 50 mm of
its length and root diameter of 18 mm within 6 mm
threaded region. Bolt B
has the same diameter
throughout its 56 mm
length and can be taken
as 18 mm. For both cases,
neglect extra material that
makes up the thread.
Take Est = 210(103) MPa, Y = 310 MPa.
20
14. Energy Methods
EXAMPLE 14.1 (SOLN)

Bolt A:
For bolt subjected to maximum tension, Y will occur
within the 6-mm region. This tension is
Pmax Y A 310 N/mm 2 18 mm 2 2
78886 N 78.89 kN
21
14. Energy Methods
EXAMPLE 14.1 (SOLN)

Bolt A:
Apply Eqn 14-16 to each region of the bolt,
N 2L
Ui
2 AE
78.89 10 N 50 mm
2 20 mm / 2 2 210103 N/mm 2
2
3
78.89 10 N 6 mm
2
3
2
2 18 mm / 2 21010 N/mm
3
2707.8 N mm 2.708 N m 2.708 J
22
14. Energy Methods
EXAMPLE 14.1 (SOLN)

Bolt B:
From calculation above, it can also support a
maximum tension force of Pmax = 78.89 kN. Thus,
N L
78.89 10 N 56 mm
Ui
2 AE 2 18 mm / 2 2 210 103 N/mm2

3261.0 N mm 3.26 N m 3.26 J
2
By comparison, bolt B can absorb 20% more elastic

energy than bolt A, even though it has a smaller xsection along its shank.
23
14. Energy Methods

Bending moment:
For the axisymmetric
beam shown.
Internal moment M,
normal stress acting on element a distance y from
neutral axis is = My/I.
If volume of element is dV = dA dx, where dA is
area of exposed face and dx its length, elastic
strain energy in beam is
L M 2
2
dx
Ui
y
dA
0 2 EI 2
A
24
14. Energy Methods

Bending moment:
Realize that area integral represents the moment
of inertia of beam about neutral axis, thus
Ui
L M 2 dx
2 EI
14 - 7
25
14. Energy Methods
EXAMPLE 14.2
Determine the elastic strain energy due to bending of
the cantilevered beam if beam is subjected to
uniform distributed load w. EI is constant.
26
14. Energy Methods
EXAMPLE 14.2 (SOLN)

Establish the x coordinate with origin at
the left side. Thus, internal moment is
M wx
x
0
2
x2
M w
M NA 0;
Applying Eqn 14-17 yields

Ui
L w x /2
dx
0
2 EI
2 EI
LM
dx
w2 L 4
x dx
8 EI 0
w2 L5
Ui
40 EI
27
14. Energy Methods
EXAMPLE 14.2 (SOLN)

For x coordinate with origin on the
the right side and extending +ve
to the left. Thus, in this case
M NA 0;
M wx
x
wL2
0
wL( x)
2
2
x2
wL2
M
wLx w
2
2
Applying Eqn 14-17, we obtain the same result.

28
14. Energy Methods

Transverse shear:
Consider prismatic beam with
axis of symmetry about the y
axis.
Internal shear V at section x results in shear stress
acting on the volume element, having length dx
and area dA, is = VQ/It.
Substitute into Eqn 14-11,
Ui
V 2
2GI 2
Q2
t2
A
dA dx
29
14. Energy Methods

Transverse shear:
Realize that integral in parentheses is evaluated
over beams x-sectional area.
To simplify, we define the form factor for shear as
A Q2
14 - 18
f s 2 2 dA
I At
Form factor is dimensionless and unique for each
specific x-sectional area.
Substitute Eqn 14-18 into above eqn,
L f sV 2 dx
0 2GA
Ui
14 - 19
30
14. Energy Methods
EXAMPLE 14.4
Determine the strain energy in cantilevered beam
due to shear if beam has a square x-section and is
subjected to a uniform distributed load w. EI and G is
constant.
31
14. Energy Methods
EXAMPLE 14.4 (SOLN)

From free-body diagram of
arbitrary section, we have
Fy 0;
V wx 0
V wx
Since x-section is square,

form factor fs = 6/5 and therefore Eqn 14-19 becomes
Ui s
L6
Ui s
5 wx 2 dx 3w2 L 2
x dx
2GA
5GA 0
w2 L3
5GA
32
14. Energy Methods
EXAMPLE 14.4 (SOLN)

Using results of Example 14.2, with A = a2, I = 1/12a4,
ratio of shear to bending strain energy is
2
Ui s
w3 L3 / 5Ga 2
2 a E
2 5

4
U i b w L / 40 E 1 12 a 3 L G
Since G = E/2(1 + ) and 0.5 (sec 10.6), then as
an upper bound, E = 3G, so that
Ui s a 2
2
Ui b L
For L = 5a, contributions due to shear strain energy is
only 8% of bending strain energy. Thus, shear strain
energy is usually neglected in engineering analysis.
33
14. Energy Methods

Torsional moment:
Consider slightly tapered shaft.
Section of shaft taken
distance x from one end
subjected to internal torque T.
On arbitrary element of length dx and area dA,
stress is = T/J.
Strain energy stored in shaft is
L T 2
2
dx
Ui
dA
0 2GJ 2
A
34
14. Energy Methods

Torsional moment:
Since area integral represents the polar moment of
inertia J for shaft at section,
Ui
L T 2 dx
14 - 21
2GJ
Most common case occurs when shaft has
constant x-sectional area and applied torque is
constant, integrating
Eqn 14-21 gives
0
T 2L
Ui
2GJ
14 - 22
35
14. Energy Methods

Torsional moment:
If x-section is of other shapes than circular or
tubular, Eqn 14-22 is modified.
For example, for a rectangular shaft with
dimensions h > b,
T 2L
Ui
14
23
2Cb3hG
hb3 16
b
b 4
C
3.336 1
16 3
h
12h 4
14 - 24
36
14. Energy Methods
EXAMPLE 14.5
Tubular shaft fixed at the wall and subjected to two
torques as shown. Determine the strain energy
stored in shaft due to this loading. G = 75 GPa.
37
14. Energy Methods
EXAMPLE 14.5 (SOLN)

Using method of sections, internal torque first
determined within the two regions of shaft where it is
constant. Although torques are in opposite directions,
this will not affect the value of strain energy, since
torque is squared in Eqn 14-22.
38
14. Energy Methods
EXAMPLE 14.5 (SOLN)

Polar moment of inertia for shaft is
J 0.08 m 4 0.065 m 4 36.30 106 m 4

2
Applying Eqn 14-22, we have

2
2
40 N m 0.750 m
T L
Ui
2GJ 2 75 109 N/m 2 36.30 106 m 4
233 J
15 N m 2 0.300 m
2 75 109 N/m 2 36.30 106 m 4
39
14. Energy Methods

IMPORTANT
A force does work when it moves through a
displacement.
If force is increased gradually in magnitude from
zero to F, the work is U = (F/2), whereas if force
is constant when the displacement occurs then
U = F.
A couple moment does work when it moves
through a rotation.
Strain energy is caused by the internal work of the
normal and shear stresses. It is always a positive
quantity.
40
14. Energy Methods

IMPORTANT
The strain energy can be related to the resultant
internal loadings N, V, M, and T.
As the beam becomes longer, the strain energy
due to bending becomes much larger than strain
energy due to shear.
For this reason, shear strain energy in beams can
generally be neglected.
41
14. Energy Methods
14.3 CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

A loading is applied slowly to a body, so that kinetic
energy can be neglected.
Physically, the external loads tend to deform the
body as they do external work Ue as they are
displaced.
This external work is transformed into internal work
or strain energy Ui, which is stored in the body.
Thus, assuming materials elastic limit not
exceeded, conservation of energy for body is
stated as
Ue Ui
14 - 25
42
14. Energy Methods

Consider a truss subjected
to load P. P applied gradually,
thus Ue = 0.5P, where is
vertical displacement of truss
at pt where P is applied.
Assume that P develops an axial force N in a
particular member, and strain energy stored is
Ui = N2L/2AE.
Summing strain energies for all members of the
truss, we write Eqn 14-25 as
1
N 2L
P
14 - 26
2
2 AE
43
14. Energy Methods

Consider a beam
subjected to load P.
External work is
Ue = 0.5P.
Strain energy in beam can be neglected.
Beams strain energy determined only by the
moment M, thus with Eqn 14-17, Eqn 14-25 written
as
LM2
1
14 - 27
P
dx
0 2 EI
2
44
14. Energy Methods

Consider a beam loaded by
a couple moment M0. A
rotational displacement is
caused. Using Eqn 14-5,
external work done is Ue = 0.5M0.
Thus Eqn 14-25 becomes
LM2
1
M 0
dx
0 2 EI
2
14 - 28
Note that Eqn 14-25 is only applicable for a single

external force or external couple moment acting on
structure or member.
45
14. Energy Methods
EXAMPLE 14.6
The three-bar truss is subjected to a horizontal force
of 20 kN. If x-sectional area of each member is
100 mm2, determine the horizontal displacement at pt
B. E = 200 GPa.
46
14. Energy Methods
EXAMPLE 14.6 (SOLN)

Since only a single external force acts on the truss
and required displacement is in same direction as the
force, we use conservation of energy.
Also, the reactive force on truss do no work since
they are not displaced.
Using method of joints, force in each member is
determined as shown on free-body diagrams of pins
at B and C.
47
14. Energy Methods
EXAMPLE 14.6 (SOLN)

Applying Eqn 14-26,
1
N 2L
P
2
2 AE
1
11.547 10 N 1 m
3
20 10 N B h
2
2 AE
3
23.094 10 N 2 m 2010 N 1.732 m

3
B h
2 AE
94640.0 N m
AE
2 AE
48
14. Energy Methods
EXAMPLE 14.6 (SOLN)

Substituting in numerical data for A and E and
solving, we get
94640.0 N m
B h
100 mm 2 1 m / 1000 mm 2 200 109 N/mm 2
4.73 103 m 4.73 mm
49
14. Energy Methods
EXAMPLE 14.7
Cantilevered beam has a rectangular x-section and
subjected to a load P at its end. Determine the
displacement of the load. EI is a constant.
50
14. Energy Methods
EXAMPLE 14.7 (SOLN)

Internal moment and moment in beam as a function
of x are determined using the method of sections.
When applying Eqn 14-25 we will consider the strain

energy due to shear and bending.
51
14. Energy Methods
EXAMPLE 14.7 (SOLN)

Using Eqns 14-19 and 14-17, we have
L f sV 2 dx
L M 2 dx
1
P
0 2GA
0 2 EI
2
L6
0
2
L Px 2 dx
5 P 2 dx
0
2GA
2 EI
2 3
3P L P L
1
5GA 6 EI
First term on the right side represents strain energy
due to shear, while the second is due to bending. As
stated in Example 14.4, the shear strain energy in
most beams is much smaller than the bending strain
energy.
52
14. Energy Methods
EXAMPLE 14.7 (SOLN)

To show this is the case, we require
3 P2L
P 2 L3
5 GA
6 EI
3 P2L
P 2 L3
1
5 G bh
6E
bh3
12
3
2 L2
2
5G
Eh
L
Since E 3G (see Example 14.4) then 0.9

h
53
14. Energy Methods
EXAMPLE 14.7 (SOLN)

Hence, if h is small and L relatively long, beam
becomes slender and shear strain energy can be
neglected. Shear strain energy is only important for
short, deep beams. Beams for which L = 5h have
more than 28 times more bending energy than shear
strain energy, so neglecting only incurs an error of
about 3.6%. Eqn (1) can be simplified to
1
P 2 L3
P
2
6 EI
3
PL
3EI
54
14. Energy Methods
14.4 IMPACT LOADING

An impact occurs when one
object strikes another, such that
large forces are developed
between the objects during a very
short period of time.
Ue Ui
1
W h max k max max
2
1 2
W h max k max
2
2W
W
2
max
max 2
h0
k
k
14 - 29
55
14. Energy Methods
14.4 IMPACT LOADING

Solving and simplifying (st = W/k),
max st
max
st 2 st h
2
h
st 1 1 2

st
14 - 30
Once max is computed, maximum force applied to

14 - 31
the spring is Fmax k max
56
14. Energy Methods
14.4 IMPACT LOADING

For a case where the block is
sliding on a smooth horizontal
surface with known velocity
just before it collides with the spring.
The blocks kinetic energy, 0.5(W/g)2 is
transformed into stored energy in the spring.
U e Ui
1 W 2 1 2
k max
2 g
2
max
gk
14 - 32
57
14. Energy Methods
14.4 IMPACT LOADING

Ratio of equivalent static load Pmax to the load W is
called the impact factor, n. Since Pmax = kmax and W
= kst, then from Eqn. 14-30, we express it as
h
n 1 1 2
st
14 - 34
This factor represents the magnification of a

statically applied load so that it can be treated
dynamically.
Using Eqn 13-34, n can be computed for any
member that has a linear relationship between
load and deflection.
58
14. Energy Methods
14.4 IMPACT LOADING

IMPORTANT
Impact occurs when a large force is developed
between two objects which strike one another
during a short period of time.
We can analyze the effects of impact by assuming
the moving body is rigid, the material of the
stationary body is linearly elastic, no energy is lost
in the collision, the bodies remain in contact during
collision, and inertia of elastic body is neglected.
The dynamic load on a body can be treated as a
statically applied load by multiplying the static load
by a magnification factor.
59
14. Energy Methods
EXAMPLE 14.8
Aluminum pipe is used to support a load of 600 kN.
Determine the maximum displacement at the top of
the pipe if load is (a) applied gradually,
and (b) applied suddenly by releasing
it from the top of the pipe at h = 0.
Take Eal = 70(103) N/mm2 and assume
that the aluminum behaves elastically.
60
14. Energy Methods
EXAMPLE 14.8 (SOLN)

(a) When load applied gradually, work done by
weight is transformed into elastic strain energy in
pipe. Applying conservation of energy,
U e Ui
1
W 2L
W st
2
2 AE
WL
600 kN 240 mm
st
AE 60 mm 2 50 mm 2 70 kN/mm 2
0.5953 mm
61
14. Energy Methods
EXAMPLE 14.8 (SOLN)

(b) With h = 0, apply Eqn 14-30. Hence
max
h
st 1 1 2

st
2 st 2 0.5953 mm
1.1906 mm
The displacement of the weight is twice as great as

when the load is applied statically. In other words, the
impact factor is n = 2, Eqn 14-34.
62
14. Energy Methods
EXAMPLE 14.10
A railroad car assumed to be rigid and has a mass of
80 Mg is moving forward at a speed of = 0.2 m/s
when it strikes a steel 200-mm by 200-mm post at A.
If the post is fixed to the ground at C, determine the
maximum horizontal displacement of its top B due to
the impact. Take Est = 200 GPa.
63
14. Energy Methods
EXAMPLE 14.10 (SOLN)

Kinetic energy of the car is transformed into internal
bending strain energy only for region AC of the post..
Assume that pt A is displaced (A)max, then force Pmax
that causes this displacement can be determined
from table in Appendix C.
3EI A max
1
Pmax
3
LAC
Ue Ui;
1
2 1
m Pmax A max
2
2
2 3
1
1
3
EI
m
LAC
2
2
m 3 A max ; A max
2
2 LAC
3EI
64
14. Energy Methods

Substitute in numerical data yields
A max
80 103 kg 0.2 m/s 2 1.5 m 3
9
2 1
3 200 10 N/m 0.2 m 4
12
0.0116 m 11.6 mm
Using Eqn (1), force Pmax becomes
3 200 10
Pmax
4
N/m 0.2 m 0.0116 m
12
1.5 m 3
2
275.4 kN
65
14. Energy Methods

Refer to figure, segment AB of post
remains straight. To determine
displacement at B, we must first
determine slope at A. Using formula
from table in Appendix C to determine A,
we have
Pmax L2AC
275.4 103 N 1.5 m 2
A
2 EI
9
2 1
2 200 10 N/m 0.2 m 4
12
0.01162 rad
66
14. Energy Methods

The maximum displacement at B is thus
B max A max A LAB
11.62 mm 0.01162 rad 1 103 mm

23.2 mm
67
14. Energy Methods
*14.5 PRINCIPLE OF VIRTUAL WORK

Principle of Virtual Work was developed by John
Bernoulli in 1717.
It is a energy method of analysis and based on
conservation of energy.
Equilibrium conditions require the external loads to
be uniquely related to the internal loads.
Compatibility conditions require the external
displacements to be uniquely related to the internal
deformations.
68
14. Energy Methods

When we apply a series of external loads P to a
deformable body, these loadings will cause internal
loadings u within the body.
The external loads will be displaced , and internal
loadings will undergo displacements .
Conservation of energy states that
14 - 35
Ue Ui ;
P u
Based on this concept, we now develop the

principle of virtual work to be used to determine the
displacement and slope at any pt on a body.
69
14. Energy Methods

Consider a body or arbitrary shape acted upon by
real loads P1, P2 and P3.
70
14. Energy Methods

There is no force acting on A, so unknown
displacement will not be included as an external
work term in the eqn.
We then place and imaginary or virtual force P
on body at A, such that it acts in the same direction
as .
For convenience, we choose P = 1.
This external virtual load cause an internal virtual
load u in a representative element of fiber of body.
P and u is related by the eqns of equilibrium.
Real loads at pt A displaced by , which causes
element to be displaced dL.
71
14. Energy Methods

Thus, external virtual force P and internal virtual
load u ride along by and dL respectively; these
loads perform external virtual work of 1 on the
body and internal virtual work of udL on the
element.
Consider only the conservation of virtual energy,
we write the virtual-work eqn as
Virtual loadings
1 u dL
14 - 36
Real displacements
72
14. Energy Methods

P = 1 = external virtual unit load acting in direction of
.
u = internal virtual load acting on the element.
= external displacement caused by real loads.
dL = internal displacement of element in direction of
u, caused by real loads.
Virtual loadings
1 u dL
14 - 36
Real displacements
73
14. Energy Methods

The choice of P = 1 will give us a direct solution for
, = u dL.
Similarly, for rotational displacement or slope of
tangent at a pt on the body, virtual couple moment
M having unit magnitude, is applied at a pt.
Thus, a virtual load u is caused in one of the
elements.
Assume that real loads deform element by dL,
rotation can be found from virtual-work eqn:
Virtual loadings
1 u dL
14 - 37
Real displacements
74
14. Energy Methods

M = 1 = external virtual unit couple moment acting in
direction of .
u = internal virtual load acting on an element.
= external rotational displacement in radians

caused by the real loads.
dL = internal displacement of element in direction of
u, caused by real loads.
Virtual loadings
Real displacements
1 u dL
14 - 37
75
14. Energy Methods

Internal virtual work:
Terms on right-hand side of Eqns 14-36 and 14-37
represent the internal virtual work in the body.
If we assume material behavior is linear-elastic
and stress does not exceed proportional limit, we
can formulate expressions for internal virtual work
caused by stress.
We then use eqns of elastic strain energy
developed in chapter 14.2.
They are listed in a table on next slide.
76
14. Energy Methods

77
14. Energy Methods

Thus we can write the virtual-work eqn for a body
subjected to a general loading as
nN
mM
f sV
tT
1
dx
dx
dx
dx
AE
EI
GA
GJ
14 - 38
78
14. Energy Methods

*14.6 METHOD OF VIRTUAL FORCES APPLIED TO TRUSSES
Displacement at joint A caused by real loads P1

and P2, and since these loads only cause axial
force in members, we need only consider internal
virtual work due to axial load.
Assume each member has a constant x-sectional
area A, virtual load n and real load N are constant
throughout members length.
As a result, virtual work for entire truss is
nNL
1
14 - 39
AE
79
14. Energy Methods

80
14. Energy Methods

1 = external virtual unit load acting on the truss joint

in the stated direction of .
= joint displacement caused by the real loads on
the truss.
n = internal virtual force in a truss member caused by
the external virtual unit load.
N = internal force in a truss member caused by the
real loads.
L = length of a member.
A = x-sectional area of a member.
E = modulus of elasticity of a member.
81
14. Energy Methods

Temperature change:
Truss members can change their length due to a
change in temperature.
Thus, we determine the displacement of a selected
truss joint due to temperature change from
Eqn 14-36,
1 n TL
14 - 40
in the stated direction of .
82
14. Energy Methods

Temperature change:
= external joint displacement caused by the
temperature change
= coefficient of thermal expansion of member.
T = change in temperature of member.
L = length of member
1 n TL
14 - 40
83
14. Energy Methods

Fabrication errors.
Displacement in a particular direction of a truss
joint from its expected position can be determined
from direct application of Eqn 14-36,
1 n L
14 - 41

in stated direction of .
84
14. Energy Methods

Fabrication errors.
= external joint displacement caused by the
fabrication errors.
L = difference in length of the member from its
intended length caused by fabrication error.
1 n L
14 - 41
85
14. Energy Methods

Procedure for analysis

Virtual forces n
Place the virtual unit load on the truss at the joint
where the desired displacement is to be
determined.
The load should be directed along line of action of
the displacement.
With unit load so placed and all real loads removed
from truss, calculate the internal n force in each
truss member. Assume that tensile forces are +ve
and compressive forces are ve.
86
14. Energy Methods


Real forces N
Determine the N forces in each member.
These forces are caused only by the real loads
acting on the truss.
Again, assume that tensile forces are +ve and
compressive forces are ve.
Virtual-work eqn
Apply eqn of virtual work to determine the desired
displacement.
87
14. Energy Methods


Virtual-work eqn
It is important to retain the algebraic sign for each
of the corresponding n and N forces while
substituting these terms into the eqn.
If resultant sum nNL/AE is +ve, displacement is
in the same direction as the virtual unit load.
If a ve value results, is opposite to the virtual
unit load.
88
14. Energy Methods


Virtual-work eqn
When applying 1 = n TL, realize that if any
members undergo an increase in temperature, T
will be +ve; whereas a decrease in temperature will
result in a ve value for T.
For 1 = n L, when a fabrication error increases
the length of a member, L is +ve, whereas a
decrease in length is ve.
When applying this method, attention should be
paid to the units of each numerical qty.
89
14. Energy Methods


Virtual-work eqn
Notice however, that the virtual unit load can be
assigned any arbitrary unit: pounds, kips, newtons,
etc., since the n forces will have these same units,
and as a result, the units for both the virtual unit
load and the n forces will cancel from both sides of
the eqn.
90
14. Energy Methods
EXAMPLE 14.11
Determine the vertical displacement of joint C of steel
truss. X-sectional area of each member is
A = 400 mm2 and Est = 200 GPa.
91
14. Energy Methods

Virtual forces n
We only place a vertical 1-kN virtual load at C; and
the force in each member is calculated using the
method of joints. Results are shown below. Using
sign convention of +ve numbers for tensile forces
and ve numbers indicate compressive forces.
92
14. Energy Methods

Real forces N
Applied load of 100 kN causes forces in members
that can be calculated using method of joints. Results
are shown below.
93
14. Energy Methods

Virtual-work Equation
Arranging data in the table below:
Member
nNL
AB
BC
100
141.4
2.828
AC
1.414
1
141.4
200
2.828
565.7
400
CD
965.7 kN2m
94
14. Energy Methods

Virtual-work Equation
Thus
nNL 965.7 kN 2 m
1 kN C
AE
AE
Substituting the numerical values for A and E, we
have
2
965.7 kN m
1 kN C
400 106 m 2 200 106 kN/m 2
C 0.01207 m 12.1 mm
95
14. Energy Methods
EXAMPLE 14.12
X-sectional area of each member of the steel truss is
A = 300 mm2, and the modulus of elasticity for the
steel members is Est = 210(103) MPa. (a) Determine
the horizontal displacement of joint C if a force of
60 kN is applied to the truss at B. (b) If no external
loads act on the truss, what is the horizontal
displacement of joint C if member AC is fabricated
6 mm too short?
96
14. Energy Methods

a) Virtual forces n.
A horizontal force of 1 kN is applied at C. The n force
in each member is determined by method of joints.
As usual, +ve represents tensile force and ve
represents compressive force.
97
14. Energy Methods

a) Real forces N.
Force in each member as caused by externally
applied 60 kN force is shown.
98
14. Energy Methods

a) Virtual-work Equation
Since AE is constant, data is arranged in the table:
Member
nNL
AB
1.5
AC
1.25
75
2.5
234.375
CB
60
CD
0.75
45
1.5
50.625
285 (kN)2m
99
14. Energy Methods

a) Virtual-work Equation
nNL 285 kN 2 m
1 kN Ch
AE
AE
Substituting the numerical values for A and E, we
have
285 kN 2 m 1000 mm/m
1 kN Ch
300 mm2 210 106 kN/m 2 1000 mm/m 2
Ch 4.524 mm
100
14. Energy Methods

b)
Here, we must apply Eqn 14-41. Realize that member
AC is shortened by L = 6 mm, we have
1 n L;
1 kN Ch 1.25 kN 6 mm
Ch 7.5 mm 7.5 mm
The ve sign indicates that joint C is displaced to the

left, opposite to the 1-kN load.
101
14. Energy Methods
EXAMPLE 14.13
Determine the horizontal displacement of joint B of
truss. Due to radiant heating, member AB is
subjected to an increase in temperature T = +60C.
The members are made of steel, for which
st = 12(10-6)/C and Est = 200 GPa. The x-sectional
area of each member is 250 mm2.
102
14. Energy Methods

Virtual forces n.
A horizontal 1-kN virtual load is applied to the truss at
joint B, and forces in each member are computed.
103
14. Energy Methods

Real forces n.
Since n forces in members AC and BC are zero, N
forces in these members do not have to be
determined. Why? For completeness, though, the
entire real force analysis is shown.
104
14. Energy Methods

Virtual-work Equation.
Both loads and temperature affect the deformation,
thus Eqns 14-39 and 14-40 are combined,
nNL
1 kN Bh
n TL
AE
1.155 kN 12 kN 4 m
00
250 10 6 m 2 200 106 kN/m 2
0 0 1.155 kN 1210 6 / C 60C 4 m
Bh 0.00222 m 2.22 m
Negative sign indicates that roller B moves to the

right, opposite to direction of virtual load.
105
14. Energy Methods

*14.7 METHOD OF VIRTUAL WORK APPLIED TO BEAMS
Applying Eqn 14-36, virtual-work eqn for a beam is

1
L mM
EI
dx
14 - 42
1 = external virtual unit load acting on the beam in

direction of .
= displacement caused by the real loads acting on
the beam.
m = internal virtual moment in the beam, expressed
as a function of x and caused by the external
virtual unit load.
106
14. Energy Methods

M = internal moment in the beam, expressed as a

function of x and caused by the real loads.
E = modulus of elasticity of material.
I = moment of inertia of x-sectional area, computed
about the neutral axis.
1
L mM
EI
dx
14 - 42
107
14. Energy Methods

Similarly, for virtual couple moment and to

determine corresponding virtual moment m, we
apply Eqn 14-37 for this case,
L m M
1
dx
14 - 43
0 EI
Note that the integrals in Eqns 14-42 and 14-43
represent the amount of virtual bending strain
energy stored in the beam.
If concentrated forces or couple moments act on
beam or distributed load is discontinuous, well
need to choose separate x coordinates within
regions without discontinuities.
108
14. Energy Methods


Virtual moments m or m.
Place a virtual unit load on the beam at the pt and
directed along the line of action of the desired
displacement.
If slope is to be determined, place a virtual unit
couple moment at the pt.
Establish appropriate x coordinates that are valid
within regions of the beam where there is no
discontinuity of real or virtual load.
109
14. Energy Methods


Virtual moments m or m.
With virtual load in place, and all the real loads
removed from the beam, calculate the internal
moment m or m as a function of each x coordinate.
Assume that m or m acts in the +ve direction
according to the established beam sign
convention.
Real moments.
Using the same x coordinates as those established
for m or m , determine the internal moments M
110
caused by the real loads.
14. Energy Methods


Real moments.
Since +ve m or m was assumed to act in the
conventional positive direction, it is important that
+ve M acts in this same direction.
This is necessary since +ve or ve internal virtual
work depends on the directional sense of both the
virtual load, defined by m or m , and
displacement caused by M .
111
14. Energy Methods


Virtual-work equation.
Apply eqn of virtual work to determine the desired
displacement or slope . It is important to retain
the algebraic sign of each integral calculated within
its specified region.
If algebraic sum of all the integrals for entire beam
is +ve, or is in the same direction as the virtual
unit load or virtual unit couple moment,
respectively.
If a ve value results, or is opposite to virtual
unit load or couple moment.
112
14. Energy Methods
EXAMPLE 14.15
Determine the slope at pt B of the beam shown. EI is
a constant.
113
14. Energy Methods

Virtual moments m.
Slope at B is determined by
placing a virtual unit couple
moment at B. Two x coordinates
must be selected to determine
total virtual strain energy in the
beam. Coordinate x1 accounts for
strain energy within segment AB,
and coordinate x2 accounts for the strain energy in
segment BC. Internal moment m within each of these
segments are computed using the method of
sections.
114
14. Energy Methods

Real moments M.
Using same coordinates x1
and x2 (Why?), the internal
moments M are computed
as shown.
115
14. Energy Methods

Slope at B is thus
m M
1B
dx
EI
L / 2 0 Px1 dx1
L / 2 1{ P L / 2 x2 } dx2
0
0
EI
EI
3PL2
B
8 EI
Negative sign indicates that B is opposite to direction
of the virtual couple moment.
116
14. Energy Methods
EXAMPLE 14.16
Determine the displacement of pt A of the steel beam
shown. I = 175.8(10-6) m4, Est = 200 GPa.
117
14. Energy Methods

Virtual moments m.
Beam subjected to virtual
unit load at A and reactions
are computed.
By inspection, two
coordinates x1 and x2 must
be chosen to cover all
regions of the beam.
For integration, it is
simplest to use origins at A and C. Using method of
sections, the internal moments m are shown.
118
14. Energy Methods

Real moments M.
Reactions on beam are found
first. Then, using same x
coordinates as those found
for m, internal moments M are
determined.
119
14. Energy Methods

3 1x1 2.5 x13 dx1
mM
1 kN A
dx
0
EI
EI
6 0.5 x2 123.75 x2
or
EI
22.5 x22 dx2
0.5 3 5 20.625 6 3 2.8125 6 4

1 kN A
EI
EI
EI
688.5 kN m3
A
EI
120
14. Energy Methods

Substitute in data for E and I, we get
A
688.5 kN m3
200106 kN/m2 175.8106 m4
The negative sign indicates that pt A is displaced

upward.
121
14. Energy Methods
*14.8 CASTIGLIANOS THEOREM

This method was discovered in 1879 by Alberto
Castigliano to determine the displacement and
slope at a pt in a body.
It applies only to bodies that have constant
temperature and material with linear-elastic
behavior.
His second theorem states that displacement is
equal to the first partial derivative of strain energy
in body w.r.t. a force acting at the pt and in
direction of the displacement.
122
14. Energy Methods

Consider a body of arbitrary shape subjected to a
series of n forces P1, P2, Pn.
Since external work done by forces is equal to
internal strain energy stored in body, by
conservation of energy, Ue = Ui.
However, external work is a
function of external loads
Ue = P dx.
123
14. Energy Methods

So, internal work is also a function of the external
loads. Thus U i U e f P1, P2 , ..., Pn
14 - 44
Now, if any one of the external forces say Pj is
increased by a differential amount dPj. Internal
work increases, so strain energy becomes
U i
U i dU i U i
dPj
14 - 45
Pj
Further application of the loads cause dPj to move
through displacement j, so strain energy becomes
14 - 46
U i dU j U i dPj i
124
14. Energy Methods

dUj = dPji is the additional strain energy caused by
dPj.
In summary, Eqn 14-45 represents the strain
energy in the body determined by first applying the
loads P1, P2, , Pn, then dPj.
Eqn 14-46 represents the strain energy determined
by first applying dPj, then the loads P1, P2, , Pn.
Since theses two eqns are equal, we require
U i
14 - 47
i
Pj
125
14. Energy Methods

Note that Eqn 14-47 is a statement regarding the
bodys compatibility requirements, since its related
to displacement.
The derivation requires that only conservative
forces be considered for analysis.
126
14. Energy Methods

*14.9 CASTIGLIANOS THEOREM APPLIED TO TRUSSES
Since a truss member is subjected to an axial load,

strain energy is given by Eqn 14-16, Ui = N2L/2AE.
Substitute this eqn into Eqn 14-47 and omitting the
subscript i, we have
N 2L

P 2 AE
It is easier to perform differentiation prior to
summation. Also, L, A and E are constant for a
given member, thus
L
14 - 48
N
P AE
127
14. Energy Methods

= joint displacement of the truss.

P = external force of variable magnitude applied to
the truss joint in direction of .
N = internal axial force in member caused by both
force P and loads on the truss.
L = length of a member.
A = x-sectional area of a member.
E = modulus of elasticity of the material.
P AE
14 - 48
128
14. Energy Methods

In order to determine the partial derivative N/P,

we need to treat P as a variable, not numeric qty.
Thus, each internal axial force N must be
expressed as a function of P.
By comparison, Eqn 14-48 is similar to that used
for method of virtual work, Eqn 14-39, except that n
is replaced by N/P.
These terms; n and N/P, are the same, since
they represent the rate of change of internal axial
force w.r.t. the load P.
129
14. Energy Methods


External force P.
Place a force P on truss at the joint where the
desired displacement is to be determined.
This force is assumed to have a variable
magnitude and should be directed along the line of
action of the displacement.
Internal forces N.
Determine the force N in each member caused by
both the real (numerical) loads and the variable
force P. Assume that tensile forces are +ve and
compressive forces are ve.
130
14. Energy Methods


Internal forces N.
Find the respective partial derivative N/P for
each member.
After N and N/P have been determined, assign P
its numerical value if it has actually replaced a real
force on the truss. Otherwise, set P equal to zero.
Castiglianos Second Theorem.
Apply Castiglianos second theorem to determine
the desired displacement .
131
14. Energy Methods


Castiglianos Second Theorem.
It is important to retain the algebraic signs for
corresponding values of N and N/P when
substituting these terms into the eqn.
If the resultant sum N (N/P) L/AE is +ve, is in
the same direction as P. If a ve value results, is
opposite to P.
132
14. Energy Methods
EXAMPLE 14.17
Determine the horizontal displacement of joint C of
steel truss shown. The x-sectional area of each
member is also indicated.
Take Est = 210(103) N/mm2.
133
14. Energy Methods

External force P.
Since horizontal displacement of C is to be
determined, a horizontal
variable force P is applied
to joint C. Later this force
will be set equal to the
fixed value of 40 kN.
134
14. Energy Methods

Internal forces N.
Using method of joints, force N in each member is
found. Results are shown in table:
Member
N/ P
N
(P = 40 kN)
N( N/ P)L
AB
4000
BC
3000
AC
1.67P
1.67
66.67(103)
5000
556.7(106)
CD
1.33P
1.33
-53.33(103)
4000
283.7(106)
135
14. Energy Methods

Castiglianos Second Theorem
Applying Eqn 14-8 gives
N L
Ch N
P AE
00
625 mm2 210103 N/mm2
283.7 103 N m
2
3
2
1250 mm 21010 N/mm
556.7 106 N m
Ch 4.24 1.08 5.32 mm
136
14. Energy Methods

b)
Here, we must apply Eqn 14-41. Realize that member
AC is shortened by L = 6 mm, we have
1 n L;
1 kN Ch 1.25 kN 6 mm
Ch 7.5 mm 7.5 mm
The ve sign indicates that joint C is displaced to the

left, opposite to the 1-kN load.
137
14. Energy Methods

*14.10 CASTIGLIANOS THEOREM APPLIED TO BEAMS
Internal strain energy for a beam is caused by both

bending and shear. As pointed out in Example
14.7, if beam is long and slender, strain energy
due to shear can be neglected.
Thus, internal strain energy for a beam is given by
Eqn 14-17; Ui = M2 dx/2EI. We then substitute into
i = Ui/Pi, Eqn 14-47 and omitting subscript i, we
have
L M 2dx

P 0 2 EI
138
14. Energy Methods

It is easier to differentiate prior to integration, thus

provided E and I are constant, we have
M dx
M
P EI
14 - 49
= displacement of the pt caused by the real loads

acting on the beam.
P = external force of variable magnitude applied to
the beam in the direction of .
139
14. Energy Methods

M = internal moment in the beam, expressed as a

function of x and caused by both the force P and
the loads on the beam.
E = modulus of elasticity of the material.
I = moment of inertia of x-sectional area computed
about the neutral axis.
M dx
M
P EI
14 - 49
140
14. Energy Methods

If slope of tangent at a pt on elastic curve is to be

determined, the partial derivative of internal
moment M w.r.t. an external couple moment M
acting at the pt must be found.
For this case
L M dx
14 - 50
M
0
M ' EI
The eqns above are similar to those used for the
method of virtual work, Eqns 14-42 and 14-43,
except m and m0 replace M/P and M/M,
respectively.
141
14. Energy Methods

If the loading on a member causes significant

strain energy within the member due to axial load,
shear, bending moment, and torsional moment,
then the effects of all these loadings should be
included when applying Castiglianos theorem.
L
N L
V dx
N
f sV
P AE 0
P GA
L M dx
L T dx
M
T
0
P EI 0 P GJ
14 - 51
142
14. Energy Methods


External force P or couple moment M.
Place force P on the beam at the pt and directed
along the line of action of the desired
displacement.
If the slope of the tangent is to be determined,
place a couple moment M at the pt.
Assume that both P and M have a variable
magnitude.
143
14. Energy Methods


Internal moment M.
Establish appropriate x coordinates that are valid
within regions of the beam where there is no
discontinuity of force, distributed load, or couple
moment.
Calculate the internal moments M as a function of
P or M and the partial derivatives M/P or M/M
for each coordinate of x.
144
14. Energy Methods


Internal moment M.
After M and M/P or M/M have been
determined, assign P or M its numerical value if it
has actually replaced a real force or couple
moment. Otherwise, set P or M equal to zero.
Castiglianos second theorem.
Apply Eqn 14-49 or 14-50 to determine the desired
displacement or . It is important to retain the
algebraic signs for corresponding values of M and
M/P or M/M.
145
14. Energy Methods


If the resultant sum of all the definite integrals is
+ve, or is in the same direction as P or M. If a
ve value results, or is opposite to P or M.
146
14. Energy Methods
EXAMPLE 14.20
Determine the slope at pt B of the beam shown. EI is
a constant.
147
14. Energy Methods

External couple moment M.
Since slope at pt B is to be determined, an external
couple moment M is placed on the beam at this pt.
Internal moments M.
Two coordinates x1 and x2 is used to determine the
internal moments within beam since there is a
discontinuity, M at B. x1 ranges from A to B, and x2
ranges from B to C.
148
14. Energy Methods

Internal moments M.
Using method of sections, internal
moments and partial derivatives
are determined.
For x1,
M NA 0;
M1 Px1 0
M1 Px1
M1
0
M'
149
14. Energy Methods

Internal moments M.
For x2,
M NA 0;
M 2 M ' P x2 0
2
M 2 M ' P x2
2
M2
1
M'
150
14. Energy Methods

Setting M = 0 and applying Eqn 14-50, we have,
M dx
M
M ' EI
L / 2 Px1 0 dx1
EI
L/2 P
L / 2 x2 dx2
EI
3PL2
8 EI
Negative sign indicates that B is opposite to direction

of couple moment M.
151
14. Energy Methods
EXAMPLE 14.21
Determine the vertical displacement of pt C of the
steel beam shown.
Take Est = 200 GPa, I = 125(10-6) m4.
152
14. Energy Methods

External force P.
A vertical force P is applied at pt C. Later this force
will be set equal to the fixed value of 5 kN.
153
14. Energy Methods

Internal moments M.
Two x coordinates are needed for
the integration since the load is
discontinuous at C. Using method
of sections, the internal moments
and partial derivatives are
determined as follows.
154
14. Energy Methods

Internal moments M.
For x1,
M NA 0;
1 2 x1
M1 x1 9 0.4 P x1 0
3 3
1 3
M1 9 0.4 P x1 x1
9
M1
0.4 x1
P
155
14. Energy Methods

Internal moments M.
For x2,
M NA 0;
M 2 18 3 0.6 P x2 0
M 2 18 3 0.6 P x2
M2
0.6 x2
P
156
14. Energy Methods

Catiglianos second theorem.
Setting P = 5 kN and applying Eqn 14-49, we have
Cv
M dx
M
P EI
11x 1 x3 0.4 x dx
1
1
1
1
6
4 18 6 x2 0.6 x2 dx2
9
0
0
EI
EI
410.9 kN m3
200106 kN/m2 125106 m4
0.0164 m 16.4 mm
157
14. Energy Methods
CHAPTER REVIEW
When a force (or couple moment) acts on a
deformable body it will do external work when it
displaces (or rotates).
The internal stresses produced in the body also
undergo displacement, thereby creating elastic
strain energy that is stored in the material.
The conservation of energy states that the
external work done by the loading is equal to
the internal strain energy produced in the body.
158
14. Energy Methods
CHAPTER REVIEW
This principal can be used to solve problems
involving elastic impact, which assumes the
moving body is rigid and all strain energy is
stored in the stationary body.
The principal of virtual work can be used to
determine the displacement of a joint on a truss
or the slope and the displacement of pts on a
beam or frame.
It requires placing an entire virtual unit force (or
virtual unit couple moment) at the pt where the
displacement (or rotation) is to be determined.
159
14. Energy Methods
CHAPTER REVIEW
The external virtual work developed is then
equated to the internal virtual strain energy in
the member or structure.
Castiglianos theorem can also be used to
determine the displacement of a joint on a truss
or slope or the displacement of a pt on a beam
or truss.
Here a variable force P (or couple moment M)
is placed at the pt where the displacement (or
slope) is to be determined.
160
14. Energy Methods
CHAPTER REVIEW
The internal loading is then determined as a
function of P (or M) and its partial derivative
w.r.t. P (or M) is determined.
Castiglianos theorem is then applied to obtain
the desired displacement (or rotation).
161

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14.

14. Energy Methods

14. Energy Methods

External Work and Strain Energy

14. Energy Methods

14.1 EXTERNAL WORK AND STRAIN ENERGY

As magnitude of F is gradually increased from zero

14. Energy Methods

14.1 EXTERNAL WORK AND STRAIN ENERGY

14. Energy Methods

14.1 EXTERNAL WORK AND STRAIN ENERGY

14. Energy Methods

14.1 EXTERNAL WORK AND STRAIN ENERGY

If the body has linear-elastic behavior, and its

14. Energy Methods

14.1 EXTERNAL WORK AND STRAIN ENERGY

14. Energy Methods

14.1 EXTERNAL WORK AND STRAIN ENERGY

14. Energy Methods

14.1 EXTERNAL WORK AND STRAIN ENERGY

14. Energy Methods

14.1 EXTERNAL WORK AND STRAIN ENERGY

14. Energy Methods

14.1 EXTERNAL WORK AND STRAIN ENERGY

14. Energy Methods

14.1 EXTERNAL WORK AND STRAIN ENERGY

14. Energy Methods

14.1 EXTERNAL WORK AND STRAIN ENERGY

14. Energy Methods

14.1 EXTERNAL WORK AND STRAIN ENERGY

14. Energy Methods

14.1 EXTERNAL WORK AND STRAIN ENERGY

14. Energy Methods

14.1 EXTERNAL WORK AND STRAIN ENERGY

14. Energy Methods

14. Energy Methods

For a prismatic bar of constant x-sectional area A,

14. Energy Methods

14. Energy Methods

EXAMPLE 14.1 (SOLN)

14. Energy Methods

EXAMPLE 14.1 (SOLN)

2707.8 N mm 2.708 N m 2.708 J

14. Energy Methods

EXAMPLE 14.1 (SOLN)

2 AE 2 18 mm / 2 2 210 103 N/mm2

By comparison, bolt B can absorb 20% more elastic

14. Energy Methods

14. Energy Methods

14. Energy Methods

14. Energy Methods

EXAMPLE 14.2 (SOLN)

Applying Eqn 14-17 yields

14. Energy Methods

EXAMPLE 14.2 (SOLN)

Applying Eqn 14-17, we obtain the same result.

14. Energy Methods

14. Energy Methods

14. Energy Methods

14. Energy Methods

EXAMPLE 14.4 (SOLN)

Since x-section is square,

14. Energy Methods