Concepts of privacy in

Japan and New Zealand

Rowena Cullen
School of Information Management
Victoria University of Wellington

Modern Japan a complex (possibly

conflicted) society

Popular belief that Japanese lack concept of privacy but this an over-simplification

Opportunity as Research Fellow, University of Tsukuba,

December 2006-March 2007 to explore an element of
this ambivalence

Concerns about privacy of personal information held by

government

Context of research . . .

Japan has a highly developed telecommunications

infrastructure, an extensive broadband network, and
high internet usage rates (67.2% of the population in
2005)

By contrast, other aspects of Japanese culture suggest

an overall lack of trust in government

Impact of this, and generally expressed concerns about

internet security, on the confidence of citizens that
government agencies will handle their personal
information appropriately, especially in the online
environment

Definition of privacy
Westin (see refs at end)
"the claim of individuals, groups, or institutions to
determine for themselves when, how and to what
extent information about them is communicated to
others

Research explored
perceived risks in submitting information to
government agencies
impact of breaches of privacy on trust in
government

Research instrument used based on earlier NZ

project - Reilly and Cullen (E-govt web site)

New Zealand citizens concerns about the privacy of their

personal information provided to government
Impact of breaches of privacy on trust in government
Questionnaire and focus group discussions seeking
responses to scenarios illustrating breaches of privacy
Findings:
face to face communication with government preferred
low levels of confidence in the privacy of online
communication but use for convenience sake
greater confidence in government than commercial
organisations (distinctions between individual agencies)
Little awareness of existing protections
Breaches of privacy shown to have a negative impact on
trust in government.

Data sought for purposes of comparison, cultural

differences that might emerge

Same questions on concerns, knowledge of protections, trust

in govt, impact of breaches, distinctions made between
agencies, channel preference

Same questionnaire, scenarios altered to suit Japanese

context (e.g. Juki-Net)

Explore differences between responses in NZ and Japan

Explanations in responses, and in literature for differences

Examine common perception - privacy is a new (Western)

concept in Japan

Some points noted in literature

(English language only)

Trust in govt commonly linked to Hofstedes model of power

distance and collectivism

Conflicting views of Bellman and Milberg

Mizutani, Dorsey and Moor discuss the introduction of

'loanword' puraibashii

Argue that in Japanese culture there are related concepts

concerning secret and forbidden matters

Concept of privacy more of self-imposed restraint vis-a-vis

affairs of others (See no evil, hear no evil, speak no evil)

Concept less individualised, but equally strong, however,

group culture may have slowed extension of concern to
Internet

Nakada and Tamuras concept of plurality

Explain apparent contradiction between attitudes to privacy

and individualism
Dichotomy between Seken and Shakai
Seken - the aspect of the world that consists of traditional and
indigenous ways of thinking and feeling)
Shakai - modernized ways of thinking influenced by thoughts
and systems imported from Western' countries.
3rd element Ikai - aspect of the world from which evil,
disasters, crime comes, along with freedom and spiritual
energy
Also include contrast between Ohyake (impartial, open public
domain) and Watakusi (partial, secret, selfish domain)

Nakada and Tamuras analysis

When the word puraibashii was introduced to Japan, it was

often compared with its ostensible opposite Ohyake

This linked the dichotomy of public/private, as used in

Western thinking, thus Japanese concepts of
Ohyake/Watakusi seen to express this dichotomy

Media tend to link the use of ICTs to the concept of

puraibashii

Nakad and Tamura argue that puraibashii has come to

include "expectations of data privacy", but not in the wider
democratic sense in which it is used in western discourse

Japanese privacy legislation

Personal Information Protection Act passed 30 May 2003;

came into effect on 1 April 2005
Establishes mandatory guidelines for central, local and
regional government agencies - individual ministries to
develop equivalent guidelines for business in their sector
Protects only living individuals, confined to information that
distinguishes an individual from others - name, date of birth,
address, job title, photograph, employment information, etc.
Focused on responsible management of information in
databases, not privacy protection for sensitive personal
information, e.g health or financial
Right to control one's personal data also included as a part of
the right to privacy guaranteed under Article 13 of the
Japanese Constitution

Findings

34 people interviewed, 28 in English and 6 in Japanese

19 males and 15 females

age range from 20-29 (5 respondents) through to over 65 (5

respondents)

Occupations: Retd, 4; Housewife, 5; Student, 6; Academic, 6;

Non-professional worker (retail or office), 2; Scientific
research, 3; Engineering and IT, 4; Teacher, 4.

33/34 used Internet, 12/34(35%) Used Internet banking;

27/34 (79%) used online retail, trading

Males used online banking more than females, but no

difference in online retail, small difference between those
under/over 45 in online retail.

24/34 (72.7%) concerned about the privacy of personal

information exchanged on the Internet
Number of respondents strongly agreeing (SA), agreeing (A),
disagreeing (D), or strongly disagreeing (SD) that their
personal information would be handled properly and
adequately protected by business and government

Negative responses to follow-up questions

Only 9 respondents agreed that they trusted government

employees with their personal information, (no strongly agree
responses)
Just over 50% (n=17) agreed or strongly agreed I am
generally concerned about the amount of information that
various government organizations hold about me, (5 were
neutral, 11 disagreed)
This did not lead to checking security/privacy statements on
govt web sites
Only 12 checked for these on govt web sites; 20 checked on
business web sites
Less than a third (n=9) strongly agreed or agreed that the
rules governing the way in which government organisations
collect and exchange information about people are adequate

Japanese Refuseniks

Over 50% sometimes refuse to provide information to an

agency if they felt there was not an adequate reason to ask
for it. (Age and gender little impact)
Communication medium for exchanging information
22 (64.7%) preferred in person
19 (29.4%) preferred the postal system
None preferred telephone; 2 (5.9%) selected the Internet
Distinctions between government agencies in the level of trust
accorded
Well trusted were Ministry of Justice, and the judiciary
Less trusted, the ministry in charge of pensions, the
police, and the newly created Ministry of Defense
Concerns expressed about trustworthiness of local
government, although 5 trusted City Hall most

Respondents explain what

privacy means to them

Information they would like to keep private, or have

control over the disclosure of
Commonly: name, address, age, date and place of
birth; income, assets and savings (etc); family (ages of
their children (etc), health data, education and career.
(fears expressed about the rising crime rate, and recent
abductions.)
Some added personal habits, thoughts, religious ideas,
and philosophies
Some had employer in mind - wanted practices in the
workplace sharpened up, concerned that pool of
people who had access to their personal, income and
health data increased every year

Eloquent explanations of concepts held

One man said: keeping personal information safe

within my castle (wood, not stone), highlighting
difference in protections offered by Japanese law and
privacy laws in other countries

Many said: privacy a western concept introduced into

Japan with modernization, and the post-War
Constitution. Concept, not well understood in Japan,
and differed from the way it was perceived in other
countries

A small number ( old and young) said they had nothing

to hide, and therefore no concerns.

Little knowledge of privacy protection

50% knew of some law or regulation, but could not

name it

Some were aware the act worked in conjunction with

the Constitution to ensure privacy in relation to
government held information

Some also knew commercial companies responsible

for their measures to ensure the protection of personal
information

Some believed maintaining privacy was a personal

responsibility, (possibly linked with high rates of
withholding personal information requested by
government?)

Scenarios
1. A letter from an agency which contained personal
financial information was sent to another person in
error, the intended recipient was notified by phone and
an apology offered
2. An incident in the offices of the local prefecture where
papers containing information about a neighbors
property tax affairs, and a heated dispute about it, were
left lying around and were seen by the participant
3. A breach of privacy concerning personal health data in
a hospital
4. The prosecution of a government employee who had
sold tax information to a debt recovery firm
5. The introduction in 2002 of the online database for
registering residents, Juki Net. (55% did not have Juki
card)

Have attitudes to privacy changed in Japan in

recent years?

Most agreed there was greater concern, prompted

by three factors

breaches of privacy by government or

individuals, reported in the media

public discussion that took place at the time the

Personal Information Protection Act was passed

concerns about the security of credit card

information in the media
Older respondents inclined to think young people
less concerned about privacy (although some young
had major concerns & personal experience of
privacy violations)

Contrast between modern concepts of

individuality and privacy and older traditions

Some older respondents (over 50s) spoke of traditional

Japanese society, rural and urban, as more community
minded

Developing concepts of individuality and privacy

accompanied by a loss of the sense of community and
mutual caring of traditional Japanese society

In traditional society, close-knit communities, people

were expected to exercise personal restraint, (hear no
evil, see no evil, speak no evil

Similar to drawing down the veil if they heard

something untoward about a neighbor

Comparisons with New Zealand data

Respondents engaged in online
activity in the two studies
Online
Activity
Online
banking
Online
trading
or
shopping

Japanese NZ
participants participants
35.3%
50.0%
79.4%

36.2%

Comparison in attitudes Japan/New Zealand

Concern about
privacy online
Conf in
business
Conf in govt
Trust govt
employees
Concern about
amt of info held
Rules are
adequate
Sometimes
refuse

Japan(total
agree)
73%

NZ (total
agree)
86%

35%

57%

27%
27%

60%
59%

52%

52%

27%

48%

58%

71%

Despite overall low levels of trust . . .

Japanese respondents less active in assuring

themselves, of privacy protection on govt web sites
(36% vs NZers 65%)

More likely to seek statements on privacy /security on

business sites (61%), NZers 78%

Many comments referred to poor attitude of employees,

declining standards, individualism, rather than agencies
themselves privacy statements not believed?

Conclusions

Individual comments about scenarios reflect attitudes to

privacy identified by Mizutani, Dorsey and Moor, and
Nakada and Tamura

Affront felt on behalf of neighbour (scenario 2), and

comments on traditional community values used
language that fits with philosophical framework
described by Mizutani, Dorsey and Moor

Group-based concepts of privacy may be so strong that

regulations have failed to provide protection in online
world

Possibly reflected in overall lower rates of concern

about the online environment among Japanese
respondents. Concerns are more personal

Other factors

Possible endorsement of Nakada and Tamura framework

growth in self-centered individualism, alienation from

more caring society of the past, even if essential to
Japans advancement
Less emphasis on democratic values than in western
concept of privacy
Some impact of low level of trust generally in politicians
in Japan corruption commonly reported (Japan 17th
on Corruption Perceptions Index)
High level of dissatisfaction reported here, needs to be
addressed

References

Reilly, P and R. Cullen. Information Privacy and Trust in Government: a citizenbased perspective. Wellington: State Services Commission, 2006. Retrieved
16 January 2006 from: http://www.e.govt.nz
/resources/research/trust-and-privacy
Westin, A. Privacy and Freedom. New York: Atheneum, 1967, p 7
Hofstede, G. Cultures and organizations: Software of the mind. New York:
McGraw-Hill, 1991
Bellman, S., Johnson, E.J., Kobrin, S.J. and G.L.Lohse, "International
differences in information privacy concerns: a global survey of consumers."
The Information Society 20, 2004, pp 313-324
Milberg, S.J., Smith, H.J., and S.J.Burke. "Information privacy: corporate
management and national regulation." Organization Science 11(1), 2000, pp
35-57
Mizutani, M., J. Dorsey, and J.H.Moor. "The Internet and Japanese conception
of privacy." Ethics and Information Technology 6, 2004, pp121-128
Nakada, M. and T. Tamura. "Japanese conceptions of privacy: an intercultural
perspective." Ethics and Information Technology 7, 2005, pp 27-36
Transparency International. Corruptions Perception Index 2006
http://www.transparency.org