NEUROSCIENCE AND NEUROLOGICAL

DISORDERS

 NEUROSCIENCE AND
NEUROLOGICAL DISORDERS
NEUROSCIENCE
1. NEUROANATOMY
2. NEUROPHYSIOLOGY
3. NEUROCHEMISTRY
4. NEUROPATHOLOGY
5. NEURO - PHARMACOLOGY ?
NEUROLOGICAL DISORDERS
6. CLINICAL NEUROLOGY

FK Neurophysiology Smt IV
18 & 21 04 2011
K.KARNA

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

The Nervous System
1. Central Nervous System
(CNS)
a. Brain
b. Spinal cord
2. Peripheral Nervous
System
(PNS)
a. Cranial nerves
b. Spinal nerves
c. Autonomic Nervous
System
(VISCERAL EFFERENT)
Sensory / afferent
somatic

FK
Neurophysiology
18&21 042011
K.Karna

NEUROPHYSIOLOGY

 INFORMATION

EXTERNA
L

INPUT
ENVIRONTME
NT
INTERNA
L

EXTERN
AL

PERCEPTI
ON
BIT/SE
C

OUTPUT
ENVIRONMENT
BIT/SE
C

BIT/SE
C

SENSORY DIVISION
DIVISION

MOTOR

INTERNA
L

 INFORMASI

 ORGANIZATION OF THE
NS

A. GENERAL DESIGN OF THE NS

1. CELLS OF THE NS
2. SENSORY DIVISION OF THE NS SENSORY
RECEPTOR
3. MOTOR DIVISION THE EFFECTORS
4. PROCESSING OF INFORMATION
5. STORAGE OF INFORMATION
B. MAJOR LEVELS FUNCTIONAL OF THE CNS
1. CORTICAL LEVEL
2. SUBCORTICAL LEVEL
3. SPINAL CORD LEVEL
C. CNS SYNAPSE

C. CNS SYNAPSE
1.
2.
3.
5.
6.
7.
8.

TYPE OF SYNAPSES
PHYSIOLOGIC ANATOMY OF THE SYNAPSE
CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES THAT FUNCTION AS
SYNAPTIC TRANSMITTER
ELECTRICAL EVENTS DURING NEURONAL
EXCITATION AND NEURONAL INHIBITION
SPECIAL FUNCTION OF DENDRITES IN EXCITING
NEURONS
RELATION OF STATE OF EXCITATION OF THE
NEURON TO RATE OF FIRING
SOME SPECIAL CHARACTERISTICS OF SYNAPTIC
TRANSMISSION
TRANSMIS

CELL OF THE NS

 NEURONAL PHYSIOLOGY

a)
b)
c)
d)

Cell of the NS: Neurone and Neuroglia

Electrical Activity in neuron
Nuclei, Ganglia, Tracts, and Nerves
Synapses

a) CELL OF THE NS
1. 1 Neuron : Basic structural and functional unit of the NS
A. Neuronal structure
a. The Cell body
b. The Dendrites
c. The axon
B. Functional type
a. Sensory neuron (afferent)
b. Interneuron
c. Motor neuron (efferent)

 CELLS OF THE NS

1.2 Supporting cells and function

a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
B.
a.
b.

CNS :
Astrocytes
Oligodendrocytes
Microglia
Ependymal
PNS
Satellite cells
Schwann cells

 NEURONE :
BASIC STRUCTURAL AND
FUNCTIONAL
UNIT OF
THE NS

Figure 2 : NEURONE

1. NEURONE and
NEUROGLIA

NEUROGLI
A

2. Nerve fibers

2. Nerve fibers : collection of many axons maybe

mixed (sensory and motor nerves)
A. Nerve fiber types and function
a. Numerical classification sometimes use for sensory
neurons
b. Relative susceptibility of mammalian A, B, and C nerve
fibers to conduction block produce by various agents
c. Somatic motor nerves innervate skeletal muscle
Autonomic nerves innervate smooth muscle, cardiac
muscle, and glands

Fibe
r

Function

type

Fiber
diame
ter
(m)

Conducti
on
velocity
(m/s)

12-20

70-120

5-12

30-70

Spike
duration
(ms)

Absolute
refractory
periode
(ms)

0.4-0.5

0.4 -1

B
C
dors
al
root

Proprioception;
somatic motor
Touch; pressure;
Motor
Motor to muscle
spindles
Pain; cold; touch
Preganglionic
autonomic

3-6

15-30

2-5

12-30

<3

3-15

1.2

1.2

0.4-1.2

0.5-2

Pain, temp.,
some mechano
reception, reflex 0.3-1.3
0.7-2.3
Sym Responses
path Postganglionic
etic
S
Table 2-1 Nerve
fiber types in mammalian
nerve

A and B fibers are

myelinated

Number

Origin

Ia
Ib
II

Muscle spindle Annulospiral ending

Golgi tendon organ
Muscle spindle, flower spray ending,
touch, pressure
Pain and cold receptors, some touch
receptors
Pain, temperature and other
receptors

III
IV

Fiber Type
A
A
A
A
Dorsal root C

Table 2-2 Numerical classification sometimes use for sensory

neurons
Susceptibility
to:

Most
susceptible

Intermediate

Least
susceptible

Hypoxia
B
A
Pressure
A
B
Local
C
B
anaesthetics
Table 2.3 Relative susceptibility of mammalian A, B, and C
fibers to conduction block produced by varous agents

C
C
A
Nerve

Soma cell

ORTHODROMIC

ORTHODROMIC

SALTATORY CONDUCTION

Terminal axon

b) Electrical Activity in
Neuron

1. (INPUT
ZONE)

AXON HILLOCK

2.(TRIGGER ZONE)AXON TERMINAL

4.(OUTPUT
ZONE)
3.(CONDUCTING
ZONE)
AXON

 ELECTRICAL PHYSIOLOGY

SINGLE
STIMULUS
INTENSITY
Subthreshold
- Threshold
- Submaximal
- Maximal
Supramaximal
(Depolarize stimuli)

SPATIAL SUMMATION

A.
2

SENSORY DIVISION OF THE NS

SENSORY RECEPTOR

 CLASSIFICATION OF THE SENSORY DIVISION

A.SOMESTHESIA (SOMATIC SENSATION)
1. The Mechanoreceptive senses: tactile, position
2. The Thermoreceptive senses: heat, cold.
3. The Nociceptive sense: pain
B.SPECIAL SENSE
1. Visual
2. Auditory
3. Olfactory
4. Gustatory
5. Equilibrium

C.CLINICAL CLASSIFICATION
1. Exteroceptive sensations
2. Proprioceptive sensations
3. Visceroseptive sensations
4. Enteroceptive sensations

SENSORY DIVISION OF THE NS SENSORY

RECEPTOR
SENSORY RECEPTORS
Sensory receptors detect and transduce/transform
stimulus energy into receptor (generator) potential
serves as a stimulus for the generation of an AP or release
of neurotransmitter
SENSORY PATHWAYS FOR TRANSMITTING SIGNALS
Information about stimulus is transmitted to the CNS
1. The Dorsal Column Medial Lemniscal System
2. Anterolateral system

SOMATOSENSORY CORTEX:
Elicit a reflex respons, alter behaviour, or produce a
conscious sensation

 GENERAL SENSORY MECHANISM

1. Reseptor classification
a. Source of the stimulus

Exteroceptors
Proprioceptors
Visceroceptors
Enteroceptors

b. Type of stimulus energi

Mechanoreceptors
Thermoreceptors
Photoreceptors
Chemoreceptors
Nociceptors

c. Type of sensation: touch,heat, cold, pain, light, sound, taste, and

smell receptors
d. Rate of adaptation: slowly adapting (tonic,static), and rapidly adapting
(phasic,dynamic) receptors

Figure 2 : SOMATOSENSORY AXIS OF THE

Sensory Pathways for Transmitting Somatic Signals

into CNS
Dorsal Column Medial Lemniscal System
1. Touch sensation requiring a high degree of
localization of the stimulus
2. Touch sensastion requiring transmission of the
gradation of intensity
3. Phasic sensation, such as vibratory sensations
4. Sensation that signal movement against the skin
5. Position sensation from the joint
6. Pressure sensation having to do with the degree of
judgment of pressure intensity

Sensory Pathways for Transmission Somatic

Signal into CNS

Anterolateral system
1.Pain
2.Thermal sensation including both
warm and cold sensastion
3.Crude touch and pressure sensation
capable of onlycrude localizing ability
on the surface of the body
4.Tickle and itch sensations
5.Sexual sensation

AREAS OF THE CEREBRAL CORTEX

Thalamus
(Medulla, Pons,Cerebellum, Mescencephalon)
Reticular Substance
Spinal cord
SENSORY PATHWAY IN CNS (TRACT)
SENSORY PATHWAY TO CNS (NERVE)

SENSORY RECEPTORS
PHYSICOCHEMICAL STIMULI

MOTOR DIVISION THE EFFECTOR

Figure 3 SKELETAL MOTOR NERVE AXIS

COMPONENTS OF THE MOTOR

CONTROL SYSTEM

1.
2.
3.

CEREBRAL MOTOR CORTEX IS RESPONSIBLE FOR

GENERATING THE IDEA FOR VOLUNTARY MOVEMENTS AND
ISSUING THE MOTOR COMMANDS FOR THEIR EXECUTION
SUBCORTICAL CENTERS IS RESPONSIBLE FOR
MODULATING AND COORDINATING THE MOTOR
COMMANDS SO THAT TASKS ARE PROPERLY CARRIED OUT
THE BASAL GANGLIA
THE CEREBELLUM
THE BRAIN STEM

SPINAL CORD REFLEX

1.
2.

RESEPTORS
UNCONCIOUS INFORMATION - PROPRIOCEPTIVE INFO.
CONCIOUS INFORMATION VISUAL AND CUTANEOUS
INFO.

GENERAL PRINCIPLES MOTOR

CONTROL SYSTEM

MOTOR OUTPUT
REFLEXIVE OR INVOLUNTARY
VOLUNTARY
CONTROL OF AXIAL & DISTAL MUSCLE
MEDIAL OR VENTRAL PATHWAYS
- CONTROL MUSCLE OF THE TRUNK AND PROXIMAL PORTIONS OF THE
LIMBS (FLEXOR)
- POSTURAL ADJUSMENTS AND GROSS MOVEMENT.
e.g VENTRAL CORTICOSPINAL TRACT AND MEDIAL DESCENDING PATHS
FROM BRAIN STEM (THE TECTOSPINAL,RETICULOSPINAL AND
VESTIBULOSPINAL TRACTS) - ADJUSMENTS OF PROXIMAL MUSCLE AND
POSTURE.
LATERAL PATHWAYS
- DISTAL PORTIONS OF THE TRUNK
- FINE AND SKILLED MOVEMENT
e.g LATERAL CORTICOSPINAL TRACT AND RUBROSPINAL TRACT DISTAL LIMB
MUSCLE PARTICULARLY LAT,CORTICOSPINAL TRACT. SKILL VOLUNTARY
MOVEMENT
PYRAMIDAL SYSTEM, EXTRAPYRAMIDAL SYSTEM, UPPER MOTOR NEURON AND LOWER
MOTOR NEURON

CEREBRAL CORTEX

THALAMUS

BASAL NUCLEI

CEREBELLUM

RED NUCLEUS
RUBROSPINAL TR
BRAIN STEM
RETICULAR

CORTICOSPINAL TR.

FORMATION

VESTIBULAR NUCLEUS

RETICULOSPINAL TR
LOWER MOTOR NEURON

VESTIBULOSPINAL TR

MOTOR FUNCTION OF SPINAL

CORD
ORGANIZATION OF THE SPINAL CORD FOR MOTOR
FUNCTION
ANTERIOR MOTOR NEURONS
- ALPHA MOTOR NEURONS
- GAMMA MOTOR NEURONS
INTERNEURONS
RENSHAW CELL INHIBITORY SYSTEM
(RECURRENT INHIBITION) LATERAL INHIBITION
TO FOCUS OR SHARPEN ITS SIGNAL.
PROPRIOSPINAL FIBERS MULTISEGMENTAL
REFLEX

RECEPTOR FUNCTION OF MUSCLE

SPINDLE
MUSCLE SPINDLE
SEND INFORMATION TO NS MUSCLE
LENGTH OR RATE OF CHANGE OF ITS
LENGTH
GOLGI TENDON ORGAN TENDON
TENSION OR RATE OF CHANGE OF
TENSION

THE STATIC RESPONS & THE

DYNAMIC RESPONS
THE STATIC RESPONSE RESPONS OF
BOTH THE PRIMARY AND SECONDARY
ENDINGS TO THE LENGTH OF THE
RECEPTOR (STRETCH SLOWLY)
DYNAMIC RESPONSE RESPONSE OF THE
PRIMARY ENDING (LENGTH OF THE
SPINDLE RECEPTOR INCREASES
SUDDENLY).. THE PRIMARY ENDING
RESPONDS EXTREMELY ACTIVELY TO RAPID
RATE OF CHANGE IN SPINDLE LENGTH

ANS

Skeletal
Smooth muscle, Cardiac muscle, gland

PROCESSING OF INFORMATION

STORAGE OF INFORMATION

B. MAYOR LEVELS OF CNS FUNCTION

CORTICA
L

SUBCORTICAL

SPINAL
CORD

B. MAYOR LEVELS OF CNS FUNCTION

1. CORTICAL LEVEL: Nuklei, Tractus
2. SUBCORTICAL: Nuklei, Ascending &
Descending Tract,
3. SPINAL CORD: Nuklei, Ascending &
Descending Tract

1. CORTICAL LEVEL
PERCEPTION SENSORY SIGNAL AND
MOTORIK SIGNAL VOLUNTARY

FUNCTION OF SPESIFIC CORTICAL AREAS

I. PRIMARY CORTEX (MOTOR AND SENSORY)

II. SECONDARY CORTEX / ASSOCIATION AREA
(MOTOR AND SENSORY)

THE CEREBRAL CORTEX, INTELECTUAL

FUNCTION of THE BRAIN: LEARNING and
MEMORY

THE CEREBRAL CORTEX

THE CORTICAL NEURON
1.

2.
3.

GRANULAR OR STELLATE - SHORT AXON

- LOCAL SIRCUIT NEURON
- NEUROTRANSMITTER: GLUTAMATE (EXCITATORY) OR
GABA
(INHIBITORY)
FUSIFORM - LONG AXONS
- PROJECT TO THALAMUS
PYRAMIDAL - LONG AXONS
- PROJECT TO OTHER LOCATIONS IN THE SAME
OR OPPOSITE HEMISPHERE AND TO
SUBCORTICAL LOCATIONS SUCH AS THE RED
NUCLEUS, BASILAR PONS, AND SPINAL CORD

THE CEREBRAL CORTEX

THE CORTICAL NEURON - SIX HORIZONTAL LAYERS
LAYERS I, II, III SPECIALIZED TO RECEIVE INPUT FROM
AND
PROJECT TO OTHER PARTS OF THE CORTEX IN THE SAME
OR
OPPOSITE HEMISPHERE
LAYER IV RECEIVES INCOMING SENSORY SIGNAL FROM THE
THALAMUS
LAYER V LONG SUBCORTICAL PROJECTIONS TO BRAIN
STEM AND SPINAL CORD
LAYER VI CORTICOTHALAMIC FIBERS

ASSOCIATION AREA OF CORTEX

PARIETO-OCCIPITO-TEMPORAL AREA
1. The posterior parietal area the spatial coordinates for all parts of the
contralateral side of the body.
2. Wernickes area language comprehension
3. Area in the angular gyrus the initial processing of visual language (reading)
4. Anterior part of the occipital lobe for naming objects
Prefrontal association area to plan complex patterns and sequens
movement
Brocas area involved in the motor aspects of speech and receive input from
Wernickes.
It provides output to the nearby motor cortex that controls the muscles
required for speech production
1. Limbic association cortex (include anterior pole of temporal lobe,ventral
aspect of the frontal lobe and a portion of the cingulate cortex) the complex
processes of emotional and motivational behaviour- connected with limbic
system(hypothalamus,amygdala,and hipocampus
1. Facial recognition area ventromedial surfaces of the occipital and temporal
lobes

THE DOMINANT HEMISPHERE

NON-MOTOR AREA
THE DOMINANT HEMISPHERE WERNICKES,
BROCAS AREA - are more highly developed in
one hemisphere (95 % of all individuals the
left hemisphere dominant (right handed)
damage WERNICKES AREA ( a general
interpretative function) inability to
understand spoken or written language
NON DOMINANT HEMISPHERE THAT
CORRESPONDS TO WERNICKEs AREA
understanding the emotional content or
intonation of spoken language
(communication)

The Dominant Hemisphere

Left hemisphere (right
handed)
Logic task
Analitical
Fragmenter
Sequential
Verbal Mathematical,
Communication, Filosofi
( THOUGHT/ PEMIKIR)

Right hemisphere (left

handed)
Skill non verbal
Holistic
Creative ( pencipta)

FUNCTION OF THE BRAIN IN COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE INPUT AND OUT PUT
AUDITORY PERCEPTION : BRAIN
PATHWAYS
FOR PERCEIVING THE HEARD
WORD AND
THEN SPEAKING
SENSORY APHASIA /
WERNICKES
APHASIA

VISUAL PERCEPTION : PERCEIVING

THE
WRITEN WORD AND THEN
SPEAKING THE

THE PREFRONTAL ASSOCIATION CORTEX

HIGHER INTELLECTUAL FUNCTIONS
LARGE LESION
DECREASED AGGRESSIVENES AND
INAPPROPRIATE SOCIAL RESPONSES LESION
INVOLVE THE VENTRAL ASPECT OF THE
PREFRONTAL CORTEX, THE LIMBIC ASSOCIATION
AREA
INABILITY TO PROGRESS TOWARD GOALS OR TO
CARRY SEQUENTIAL THOUGHTS
PREFRONTAL CORTEX AS THE SITE OF WORKING
MEMORY

FUNCTION OF THE CORPUS CALLOSUM AND

ANTERIOR COMMISSURE
THE TRANSFER OF INFORMATION BETWEEN
HEMISPHERES

THOUGHT, CONSCIOUSNESS, AND MEMORY

MEMORY TRACES
HABITUATION
MEMORY SENSITIZATION
MEMORY
- SHORT TERM MEMORIES
- INTERMEDIATE LONG TERM MEMORY
- LONG TERM MEMORY

B. 2 SUBCORTICAL LEVEL

JARAS PROYEKSI SPESIFIK KE KORTEKS

SPESIFIK RETIKULAR

BAGIAN NON

 SPINAL CORD LEVEL

LECT.REFLEX TASK 17
24102007

REFLEX

 REFLEKS
DEFINISI : RESPONS SS YANG TIDAK DISADARI,
AUTOMATIS TERHADAP SUATU RANGSANG
SENSORIK INTERNAL DAN EKSTERNAL
JALUR / LINTASAN YANG BERPERAN DALAM
AKTIVITAS REFLEKS LENGKUNGAN REFLEKS
(REFLEKS ARC)
1. RECEPTOR SENSORIK
2. NEURON AFEREN
3. PUSAT INTEGRASI / SINAPS
4. NEURON EFEREN
5. EFEKTOR

 REFLEKS

INERVASI RECIPROCAL (
PERSARAFAN TIMBAL
BALIK ) : AGONIST DAN
ANTAGONIS

INVERSE STRETCH REFLEX

/ AUTOGENIC INHIBITION
RANGSANG TERLALU
KUAT RESPONS
TERHENTI

 MACAM AKTIVITAS REFLEKS

1. BERDASARKAN PUSAT INTEGRASI

a. REFLEKS SPINALIS (TK. MED.SPINALIS)
b. REFLEKS BULBAR (TK SUBCORTIKAL)
c. REFLEKS CORTIKAL (TK.CORTIKAL)
2. LOKASI RECEPTOR SENSORIK
a. EKSTEROSEPTIF (SUPERFICIAL R.)
b. PROPRIOSEPTIF ( DEEP R. )
c. VISCEROSEPTIF ( VISCERAL R. )

 MACAM REFLEKS

3. JUMLAH SINAPS / INTERNEURON ANTARA

AFEREN DAN EFEREN
a. R. MONOSINAPTIK
b. R. POLISINAPTIK
4. DIBAWA (INBORN R. / UNCONDITIONED R.)
DIDAPAT (ACQUIRED / CONDITIONED R.)
5. REFLEKS FISIOLOGIS PATHOLOGIS

SUPERFICIAL
REFLEXES

AFFERENT

CENTER

EFFERENT

1. CORNEA
2. NASAL
3.PHARINX,UVU.
4.UPPER ABDM
5 LOWER ABDM.
6.CREMASTER
7. PLANTAR
8. ANAL

V
V
IX
Th7,8,9,19
Th10,11,12
FEMORAL
N.TIBIALIS
PUDENDAL

PONS
BRAINSTEM
MEDULLA /MO
Th7,8,9,10 MS
Th10.11,12 MS
L1
S I,2
S1,2

VII
V,VII,IX,X
X
Th 7,8,9,10
Th 10,11,12
GENITOFEMOR
N.TIBIAL
N.PUDENDAL.

V
Musculocutaneous
RADIAL
RADIAL
MEDIAN
RADIAL
FEMORAL
TIBIAL

PONS
C 5, 6
C 6,7
C 6,7,8
C 6,7,8
C7,8
L2,3,4
S 1,2

V
MUSC.CUTANEUS
RADIAL
RADIAL
MEDIAN
RADIAL
FEMORAL
TIBIAL

DEEP REFLEXES
1.JAW
2.BICEPS
3.TRICEPS
4.PRIOSTEORADIAL
5.WRIST-FLEXI
6.WRIST EXTENSI
7.PATELLAR
8.ACHILLES

VISCERAL
REFLEXES

AFFERENT

CENTER

EFFERENT

1.LIGHT
2.ACOMMODATION
3.CILIOSPINAL
4.OCULARCARDIAC
5.CAROTID SINUS
6.BULBOCAVERNOS.
7.BLADDER , RECTAL

II
II
SENSORIS Th I,2
V
IX
PUDENDAL
PUDENDAL

MIDBRAIN
OCCIPIT.CORT
Th 1,2
MO
MO
S 2, 3, 4
S 2, 3, 4

III
III
CERVICAL S.
X
X
PELVIC ANS
PUDENDAL &
ANS

SYNAPSE

TYPE OF SYNAPSE

 SYNAPTIC TRANSMISSION
CHARACTRISTIC OF SYNAPTIC TRANSMISSION
1. One way conduction
2. IPSP and EPSP Neurotransmitter
3. Synaptic delay
4. Fatigue
5. Effect acidosis and alkalosis
6. Effect of hypoxia: cessation of O2 in a few second
inexcitability and then 3 to 7 second the person become
conscious.
7. Effect of drug: coffe, tea, and cocoa (cafein, theophyllin,
theobromine) increase neuronal excitability. Glycine
(inhibitory effect), anaesthetic.
8. Special functions of dendrites in exciting neuron:
- Large spatial field of excitation of the dendrites (80-95%),
5 20% in neuronal soma
- most dendrite cannot transmit AP but they can transmit
signal by
electronic conduction

SECOND MESSENGER
SYSTEM. Transmitter
substance activated G
protein to Release G
protein 4 effects
1.Opening ion channel
2. Activating an enzyme
in
neuronal mb.
3.Activating an
intracellular
enzyme system
4. Causing gene
transcription

SMALL MOLECULE, RAPIDLY

ACTING NEUROTRANSMITTERS

NEUROPEPTIDE, SLOWLY
ACTING TRANSMITTERS OR
GROWTH FACTOR

Class I:
Acetylcholine
Class II: The amines
Nor Epinephrine (NE)
Epinefrin (E)
Dopamine
Serotonin
Histamine
Class III: Aminoacids
amino-butyricacids (GABA)
Glysine
Glutamate
Aspartate
Class IV
Nitric Oxide (NO)

Hypothalamic Releasing Hormone

Thyrotropin RH (T RH)
Luteinizing hormone- RH (LHRH)
Somatostatin (GH-IF)
Pituitary peptide
ACTH
Endorpine
Melanocytes Stimulating
Hormone
Prolactine, LH, TSH, GH
Vasopressin (ADH), Oxytosin
Peptide that act on gut and brain
Leucine Enkephaline,
Methionine Enkep.
Substance P, Gastrin, CCK, VIP
Nerve growth factor, Brain drive
neurotropic factor, Neurotensine
Insulin, Glucagon
From other tissues

TERIMAKASIH

INDEPENDENT LEARNING

1.

2.

3.

NEURONS AND SYNAPSES AT GLANCE

Function Neuron and Supporting Cells
Neuron basic functional unit of ns
- Electrogenesis
- All or None Transmission
- Secretion of neurotransmitter
Synaptics Transmission
- Electrical synaps
- Chemical synaps
Major Levels of CNS Function
- spinal cord level
- Subcortical level
- Cortical level

LEARNING TASK
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

9.

DESCRIBE THE STRUCTURE OF NEURON AND EXPLAIN THE FUNCTIONAL

SIGNIFICANCE OF ITS PRINCIPAL REGION
CLASSIFY NEURONS ON THE BASIS OF THEIR STRUCTURE AND
FUNCTION
DESCRIBE THE LOCATIONS AND FUNCTION OF THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF
SUPPORTING CELLS
EXPLAIN WHAT IS MEANT BY THE BLOOD - BRAIN BARRIER AND DISCUSS
ITS SIGNIFICANCE
DESCRIBE THE NEURILEMMA AND EXPLAIN HOW IT FUNCTIONS IN THE
REGENERATION OF CUT PERIPHERAL NERVE FIBERS
EXPLAIN HOW A MYELIN SHEATHS IS FORMED
DEFINE POLARIZATION, DEPOLARIZATION, REPOLARIZATION, AND
HYPERPOLARIZATION
EXPLAIN THE ACTION OF VOLTAGE-REGULATED Na+ AND K+ CHANNELS
AND DESCRIBE EVENTS THAT OCCUR DURING THE PRODUCTION OF AN
ACTION POTENTIAL
DESCRIBE THE PROPERTIES OF ACTION POTENTIALS AND EXPLAIN THE
SIGNIFICANCE OF ALL-OR NONE LAW AND REFRACTORY PERIODE