Sedimentary Basins related to Volcanic

Arcs
M08353 Basin Analysis

Reading - start with:

Reading, H.G.: Sedimentary Environments

2nd edition. Tectonics & Sedimentation chapter by Mitchell &
Reading
3rd edition. Volcaniclastics chapter by Orton, p. 549-

Volcanic arcs may develop...

within oceanic lithosphere, where ocean floor

subducts beneath ocean floor, and an island arc
results, e.g. Lesser Antilles arc
or at the edge of a continent, where oceanic
lithosphere subducts beneath continental
lithosphere, and a continental margin magmatic arc
forms, e.g. Andes

Basins related to volcanic arcs

fore-arc
back-arc
intra-arc
All may be either submarine or

subaerial, or may have marine &

subaerial parts
Much sediment is supplied from active
arc.

Fore-arc basins
Lie in the arc-trench gap, between

volcanic arc and submarine trench

range from small basins on trench
slope to large basins (50 to 100 km
wide, and > 500 km long) with thick fills
(several km)
Basins tend to become wider and
shallower with time, partly because of
accretion at trenches

fore-arc basins
Sediment sources:
volcanic arc
outer arc
longitudinally from
a continent

Tectonic style varies:

compressional
extensional
strike-slip

Back-arc basins
lie behind the magmatic arc
often the site of extension & thinning of crust
may overlie either ocean or continental crust
oceanic back-arc basins are eventually

subducted and destroyed, or preserved in

thrust complexes related to ocean closure.
back-arc basins on continental crust - more
varied facies, because of terrigenous input;
higher preservation potential.

Intra-arc basins
Sedimentary basins within magmatic arcs,

between volcanoes, or between older and

younger belts of the arc
Some are fault-bounded and subside rapidly.
Faulting due to extension within arc, or
flexure of lithosphere due to weight of
volcano.
With time, position of the arc migrates, and
basins may change between intra-arc, backarc and fore-arc.

Sediment supply and transport

Sediment supply varies according to volcano

behaviour, governed by magma viscosity and

gas content.
In deep water, explosive activity is suppressed
by hydrostatic pressure.
More silicic magmas in more evolved arcs therefore greater explosive activity, more supply
of pyroclastic sediment.

Sediment transport and deposition is

controlled by:
topography - both subaerial and

submarine
volcanic processes, especially eruption
column height, direction of pyroclastic
flows
sediment transport systems - e.g. rivers,
prevailing winds

SubductionZones

Subductionzones

alsotermedconvergentorconsumingplatemargins
occurwhereadjacentplatesmovetowardeachother
andrelativemotionisaccommodatedbyoneplate
overridingtheother.
Thesezonesareclassifiedaseitheroceanicor
subcontinental,dependingontheoverridingplate.
Ifthe"subducting"plateiscontinental,subduction
willceaseandamountainbeltwillformwithina
collisionzone.

Where do subduction zones occur?

alongthe"RingofFire"aroundthePacificOcean.
TwoshortsubductionzonesoccurattheLesser
Antilles,attheeasternsideoftheCarribeanplate
andtheSouthSandwichIslandplate.
ThreeshortsegmentsoftheAlpineHimalayan
systeminvolvesubductionofoceaniclithosphere.
theCalabrianandAegeanboundariesintheMediterranean
Sea
MakranboundaryalongtheSWboundaryoftheIranplate.

Physiography

Outer Swell
Outer Trench Wall
Trench
Forearc (Arc-Trench Gap)
Volcanic Arc
Back-Arc

Physiography 2

Outer swell
Low topographic bulge (a few hundred meters of relief)
develops just outboard of where subducting plate
bends down into the mantle.

Outer Trench Wall

Slope on ocean floor between the outer swell and the

trench floor.
Slope dip is typically -5 degrees

Trench
Deep valley that develops at the plate boundary.
Continuous for 1000s of km
typically 10 - 15 km deep (5 - 10 km below
surrounding ocean floor.)

Forearc (Arc-Trench Gap)

Consists of region between trench and the arc.
steep inner trench wall (lower trench slope)
dips of - 10 deg
flattens into a gentle slope termed the forearc basin (upper
trench slope).
The inner trench wall is usually separated from the forearc by
the outer ridge.
The accretionary prism underlies the inner trench wall, the
outer ridge and part of the forearc basin.

Volcanic Arc

Active arc built on a topographically high region

of older rocks, the arc basement
may be a shallow marine platform or an
emergent region of older rocks.
In continental arcs, the basement is continental
crust standing a few kms above sea level.
Volcanoes in island arcs are usually 1 - 2 km
above sea level. Volcano elevation in
continental arcs is strongly influenced by
continental crust thickness.

Back-Arc

Area behind the volcanic arc.

In island arcs this region consists of basins with
oceanic crustal structure and abyssal water
depths.
Sometimes remnant arcs are preserved behind
the island arcs.
On continents this region is the continental
platform which may be subaerially exposed, or
the site of a shallow marine basin.

Gravity

Typically, similar free-air gravity profiles

50 mGal gravity high associated with the outer bulge

200 mGal low associated with the trench and accretionary prism
200 mGal high associated with the arc.

Isostatic anomalies have the same polarity as the free-air

gravity
Suggests that the gravity anomalies are caused by the
dynamic equilibrium imposed by the system by compression.
Compressional forces cause the trench to be deeper and the
arc to have less of a root than they would be if only isostatic
forces were at work.

StructurefromEarthquakes

Subductionzonesarecharacterizedby
dippingseismiczonestermedBenioffzones
orWadatiBenioffzones
Resultfromdeformationofthedowngoing
lithosphericslab.Thezoneshavedips
rangingfrom40to60deg

Because,theslabiscolderandmoredense
thansurroundingasthenosphere,it's
positioncanbemappedseismicallyashigh
velocityanomaliesandashigh"Q"(little
attenuationofseismicwaves)zonesinthe
mantle.HighQ,andhighvelocityare
thoughttocorrespondtorelativelyhigh
density,coldmaterial

earthquakehypocenters
relatedtotheirpositionwithin
theslab

Shallow depths
predominantly thrust faults within the upper
part of the downgoing plate or in the adjacent
overriding plate.
Down to depths of 400 km, down-dip extension.
In some slabs, down-dip extension is found in the upper
part of the slab, accompanied by down-dip compression
at the base of the slab. The extension probably results
from the lithosphere being pulled into the mantle by the
weight of the downgoing portion.

Deep slabs usually show down-dip compression

may result from increased viscous resistance at depth.
deeper part of the slab will feel a push from the weight of the shallower
portion of the slab.

Between 70 - 300 km, faulting may occur due to dehydration

of serpentinite.
From 300 - 700 krn may also be due to the sudden phase
change of olivine to spinel which may be accommodated by
rapid shearing of the crystal lattice along planes on which
minute spinel crystals have grown.

StructuralGeology- Trenches

Trenchesnormallycontainflatlying
turbiditesdepositedbycurrentsflowing
downintothetrenchfromtheoverriding
plateoralongtheaxisofthetrench.The
outerswellisprobablycausedbyelastic
bendingofthesubductingplate.

Forearc

maybeunderlaineitherbytheaccretionaryprism
orarcbasementrockscoveredbyathinveneerof
sedimentsorboth.
Wherethereislittlesedimentaccumulationonthe
subductingplate,islandarcorcontinentalbasement
mayextendallthewaytothelowertrenchslopeand
littleornoaccretionaryprismmayoccur.
Forearcbasementmaydrapedbyathinveneerof
sediment,andiscommonlycutbynormalfaults
towardthetrench.

AccretionaryPrism

wedge of deformed sedimentary rocks

the main locus of crustal deformation
Rocks are typically cut by numerous imbricate
thrust faults that dip in the same direction as
the subduction zone.
As more material is added to the toe of the
wedge, the thrusts are moved upwards and
rotate arcwards.
Rocks within the accretionary prism are derived
from the downgoing and/or overriding plates.

AccretionaryPrism

At the toe of the wedge, sediments are

added thru offscraping
propagation of the basal thrust into
undeformed sediments on the
subducting plate.
This process results in progressive
widening of the wedge, and eventually a
decrease in dip on the subduction zone.

AccretionaryPrism

Whensedimentsonthedowngoingplateare
subductedwithoutbeingdisturbedtheycan
stillbeaddedtotheprismthruunderplating
propagationofthebasalthrustintothe
downgoingundeformedsedimentstoforma
duplexbeneaththemainpartoftheprism.

SubductionErosion

erosion and subsequent subduction of

rocks from the toe of the prism.
Sedimentonthesubductingplatethatisnot
addedtotheoverridingplatethruthese
processesmaydescendintothemantleand
contributetothegenerationofarcmagmas.

ForearcBasin

Wide sedimentary basin

develops above irregular basement on the upper part of the arc-trench
gap.
Sediments from the active arc or arc basement rocks
deposited by turbidity currents traveling along the basin axis or
perpendicular to the arc.

asymmetric basin
inner part of the upper slope basin subsides
outer edges rises due to accretion at the toe of the wedge.

highP,lowTmetamorphism
increasesingradetowardtheinnerforearcregion
inthedirectionofsubduction

Arc

Arc basement
older more deformed and metamorphosed rocks in platform on which
the modem arc is built.
oceanic rocks
On the continents, complex continental basement.

Volcanic arc
a chain of largely andesitic stratovolcanoes spaced at fairly regular
intervals of 70 km.
The structural environment of these arcs is commonly extensional
(numerous normal faults)
volcanoes in grabens termed volcanic depressions.
underlain by large plutonic bodies (e. g. the Sierra Nevada).

Arcs

Metamorphism

common and suggest a high geothermal gradient.

Much of the lower crust may be at the melting
temperature of granite.

Sediments

debrisfromactivevolcanoes.
depositedasturbidites.
Intropics,settingsthesevolcanogenicsedimentsmay
interfingerwithcarbonatereefs.
Incontinentalarcs,sedimentsareoftendepositedsubaerially.

Backarc

extensionaltectonicsandsubsidence.
Inoceansarcderivedsedimentsare
depositedinanoceanbasinbehindthearc
termedthebackarcbasin.
Incontinents,sedimentsaredepositedinto
basinsonthecontinentalplatformandare
termedforelandbasinsorretroarcbasins.

Foreland Fold and Thrust Belts

Relation between foreland fold and thrust belts

and subduction not understood
not all continental arcs display these features.
Possible explanations if there is a relation
Thrust belt caused by compression at margin of
overriding plate due to subduction of hot, buoyant
lithosphere.
Thrust belt associated with shallow dip of a downgoing
slab.
Thrustbeltassociatedwithsubductionofanaseismicridge.

Models of thermal processes in

subduction zones

Rate of Subduction
The faster the descent of the slab, the less time it has to
absorb heat from the mantle.

Slab Thickness
The thicker the descending slab, the more time it takes
to come into equilibrium with the surrounding
lithosphere.

Frictional Heating
occurs at top of slab due to friction as slab descends
and is resisted by the lithosphere.

Conduction

heat into slab from the asthenosphere

Adiabatic Heating
associated with compression of slab with increased pressure at depth.

Heat of Radioactive Decay

decay of radioactive minerals in the oceanic crust (minor)

Latent Heat of Mineral Phase Transitions

olivine-spinel transition at 400 km is exothermic. Spinel-oxide transition at
670 km could be either exothermic or endothermic.

All thermal models show that the

downgoing slab maintains its thermal
identity to great depths (e. g. contrasts
of 700 deg C can still exist at 700 krn
depth).

If the slab is so cold, how do we get

enough heating to cause arc
magmatism?

Melting of Slab in Presence of Water

Partial melting may take place at lower temperatures
due to presence of water as slab dehydrates. Water is
released by transition of amphibolite to ecologite, and
dehydration of serpentinite at depths of - 100 km.

Corner Flow and Melting of Mantle

Downgoing slab may cause flow of hot mantle into the
comer of the overriding mantle where it impinges on the
downgoing slab. This may provide enough heat to
cause melting.

Origins of back-arc basins

Entrapment of previous oceanic crust

Change of plate motion may lead to abandonment of a fragment of
oceanic crust behind the arc. (e.g., Aleutian Basin and West
Philippines Basin )

Formation of new crust - behind the arc. 3 models

o Spreading caused by forceable injection of a diapir rising from the
downgoing slab.
o Spreading induced in the overriding plate by the viscous drag in the
mantle wedge caused by the motion of the downgoing plate (comer
flow).
o Spreading induced by the relative drift of the overriding plate away
from the downgoing slab (slab fixed with respect to mantle). This is
also termed roll-back.

Ocean-ocean plate convergent

boundary.

Structure of a continent-ocean
convergent boundary.

Continent-continent collision.

Mid-ocean ridge divergent

boundary showing transform
faults.

Two stages of an opening rift.

slab-pull due to its greater

density

Reconstruction @ 250 million

years ago

Concept of a Basin

Three dimensional architecture of basin fill.

Affected by spatial and temporal pattern of
tectonic subsidence:
Lithospheric deformation process.
Three basic causes of subsidence:
Loading and flexure (like an elastic plate).
Thermal and density changes - isostasy.
Faulting - isostasy.

Sea level changes.

Sediment supply rates and source position
(drainage basin outlets).

Basin Classification

Extensional:

Half graben/graben - Rift Basin, e.g. Basin and Range,

U.S.A.
Mature oceanic speading - e.g. Atlantic margin (Passive
Margin).
Syn-rift, post-rift megasequences.

Compressional:

Foreland basin - flexural loading of the Earth's

lithosphere.
Two types:
Collisional, e.g. Himalaya.
Back arc, e.g. Andes/Precordillera.
Piggy-back basin (thrust sheet top basin).

Strike-Slip Basins:

E.g. Dead Sea, Israel.

Basin Classification Cont.

Passive Margins:
E.g. Atlantic Margin.

Subduction Related:
Oceanic trench, e.g. Marianas Trench.
Fore-arc basin, e.g Taiwan or Median Valley in Scotland.
Back-arc basin, e.g. Sea of Japan.

Cratonic "sag" Basins:

E.g. Chad Basin, Africa.

Abyssal Plains.
Predictive models of facies distributions:
useful for subsurface exploration of oil or
understanding dispersal of pollutants.

Benioff Zones

Earthquakes occur at shallow, intermediate

and deep levels beneath subduction zones
The earthquakes define a plane which
begins at the trench and dips at about 45
beneath the arc
This dipping plane of earthquake foci is
called the Benioff Zone
The Benioff Zone follows the upper part of
the descending oceanic plate
Shallow earthquakes also occur through
the arc

Island Arcs

Island arcs are of chains of volcanically active

islands arranged in a curved arc
An ocean trench occurs on the oceanwards side
Island arcs first develop on oceanic crust
The crustal thickness in an arc is intermediate
between oceanic and continental
Volcanic activity begins abruptly at a Volcanic Front
about 200 - 300 km in from the trench
The volcanic front and trench are separated by an
Arc-Trench gap with no volcanism

Island Arc Volcanism

Volcanic rocks in island arcs are mostly of

andesitic composition
The magmas originate mostly by partial
melting of subducted oceanic crust and
overlying mantle
Melting begins when the slab descends to
about 100 km depth, forming the volcanic
front Partial melting of basaltic ocean crust
Rising magmas Volcanic eruptions

Chemical Differentiation

Mid-Ocean Ridge:
Partial melting of Mantle basalt magma
Subduction Zone:
Partial melting of Basalt crust andesite magma
Mature Arcs:
Partial melting of Andesite crust rhyolite
magma
All of this is an irreversible chemical differentiation
of the mantle in several stages
Continental crust grows by accumulation of
increasingly silica-rich rocks

Ocean trench Sedimentation

Unconsolidated sediment from the ocean floor is

scraped off the descending plate at the trench
Slices of the oceanic crust may be included as
ophiolite belts
These rocks form a complex rock mass called an
Accretionary Wedge
The Accretionary Wedge is buckled upwards as
new material is pushed beneath its base
The chaotic jumble of rocks in the Accretionary
wedge is called a Tectonic Mlange Accretionary
Wedge

Metamorphic Rocks and

Subduction

High Temp - Low Pressure

Metamorphism
Occurs in the core of volcanic arcs
Abnormal heating of the crust
thermal effects of subduction-related magmatism

High Pressure-Low Temp

Metamorphism
occurs in the accretionary wedge
cold rocks are dragged to great depths and then
upthrust again Granites

Basin Analysis

Basins

Topographically low places where sedimentary

materials accumulate.
Basins are characterized by accomodation space.
Accomodation is created by
Eustatic sea-level rise
Subsidence

Basin Analysis
Basin analysis is the detailed investigation of
the processes that

Form basins
Fill basins
Alter basins
Uplift (invert) basins
Destroy basins
Requires sedimentology, stratigraphy, hydrogeology,
petroleum geology, seismology, geophysics,
geochemistry, paleontology, etc.

Types of Basins

Intracratonic
Rift related
Strike-Slip related
Collision / Subduction related

_Intracratonic Basins that form within

continental crust _Intracratonic Basins
that form within continental crust
Rifts Divergent plate boundaries that
eventually develop into spreading centers.

Rifts Divergent plate boundaries that

eventually develop into spreading centers.
_Initial rift sediments are arkosic
sandstones interbedded with basalts.
_Rifts then flood and deposit a thick
sequence of evaporites.
_Then marine sedimentationtakes over.

The Tonga Arc - Lau Back-arc Basin System

CLSC: central Lau spreading center

ELSC: east Lau spreading center
VFR: Valu Fa ridge (ELSC
)

(ETZ: extensional transform

ELSC &
Zone 3
Decreased Magma Supply

ELSC
: 60-110 km
: 60-95 mm/yr : 2,000-3,000
m
aMBA and/or

Zone 3
: Zone2 2-3.5 km
:zone2 1 km
aMBA
Zone2
Abyssal hills

Character and Position of Spreading Axes

[VFR ]

[ELSC
]

aMBA

[CLSC
]

ELSC
CLSC

Basins & basin types

Basin: a region of depressed crust, typically with
greater thicknesses of sediment accumulation
than surrounding regions.
Basins form by tectonic processes that cause
the crust to subside, and so to create large
amounts of accommodation space. Rapid Aspace growth translates into abundant and wellpreserved organic matter within the sediment.
The abundance of organic matter combined
with the low grade burial metamorphism that
sediments in thick accumulation experience
translate into major oil and gas accumulations.
Basins provide the most complete successions
of the geological record.

Tectonic setting for the

majority of basins
Constructive (spreading) margins: This setting produces
a genetic series of basins from localized rift-related
basins through narrow oceans (Red Sea phase) to
voluminous passive margin basins.
Destructive (convergent) margins: This setting produces
basins associated with subduction zones (foredeep
basins), intra-arc spreading basins, back-arc
spreading basins (Sea of Japan, Great Basin), and
back-arc thrust (foreland) basins.
Transform (strike-slip) margins: mostly localized pullapart basins such as the Gulf of California and Dead
Sea. Grades into rift-type and thrust-type tectonics
where relative plate motion is not fully strike-slip (i.e.,
transtensional and transpressional regimes).
Intra-cratonic basins. Fairly mysterious, concentrically
subsiding basins formed on continental crust well
away from plate boundaries. The cause of
subsidence is unknown, but is generally considered
to involve some combination of density-driven stress
and in-plane stress.

Rifting and passive margin

Continental rifting begins with dome-formation. Produced

by hot-spot volcanism (bimodal: dominantly basaltic plus
some rhyolite from partial melting of the crust by basaltic
magma and decompression melting).
Much extension by normal-faulting. Individual domes link
up to form a more or less continuous series of rift valleys
(grabens, as in the East African Rift zone). Extension
results in thinning of the upper crust. The lower crust
thins by ductile flow.
High heat flow produces thermal uplift; uplift leads to
further thinning of the upper crust by erosion.
Continued extension produces oceanic crust between the
newly formed, thinned continental margins. Eventually
(over 107 years), sea floor spreading and thermal
subsidence yields a distinct mid ocean ridge, open
communication with the oceans (Red Sea phase) to form
a permanent seaway.
Continued seafloor spreading carries the new continental
margins away from the active tectonic zone. The muchextended crust cools and subsides over the next 108 yrs.
as a passive continental margin ("passive margin," for
short).

Rift basins.

Smallish volumes of sediment (100s to a few

1000 m of accommodation space) in
localized, fault-bounded basins.
Dominantly terrestrial (subaerial and
lacustrine) and arid as result of uplifted
margins that cast rain-shadows into the
basins as well as their small drainage
capture area.
Early rift sediments typically heterogeneous
with basement clasts and volcanics
dominant. Grains with low physical and
chemical maturity. Late rift sediments often
include extensive evaporites from episodic
oceanic invasions (reflects variable rates of
subsidence and sea level rise and fall).
Remobilized salt becomes important in
passive margin history later (see below).

Passive margin basins.

Lots of accommodation space (10,000 to 15,000 m or more)

from combination of thermal and sediment load-driven
subsidence.
As oceans widen, marine conditions come to dominate.
Early phases often still arid and dominated by carbonate
deposition and fringing reefs along the shelf edge (at low
latitude sites)
With continued subsidence the fringing mountains
diminish, drainage basin size grows, and clastic sediment
supply rates increase. In humid regions or times of low sea
level, deposition switches to the clastic off-lap suite with
formation of the familiar shelf environments: typical
association of deltas, beaches, and sub-tidal clastic shelf
deposits grading outward to deep sea fans and contourites
in continental rise settings. Prograding sediments build a
wide continental shelf upon a voluminous accumulation of
clastic or carbonate (or some mix of clastic and carbonate).
The clastic off-lap suite is well developed along the present
Atlantic coast of North America, South America, Africa, and
Europe. The southern passive margin of Laurentia (what is
now the eastern margin of North America) was dominated
in the Cambrian and Ordovician entirely by carbonates.
Both are major source of petroleum.

Destructive (convergent)
margin basins

Foredeep Basins
Foreland Basins.
Facies patterns.

Foredeep Basins

Basin forming mechanisms: dominantly a combination of

load-related and density-related subsidence. Loading
leads to flexure of the crust. Subsidence near the load is
matched by a compensating (but smaller amplitude) upbend at the periphery of the down-bend.
At destructive plate boundaries, dense, old oceanic crust
subducts beneath continental crust or younger, lessdense oceanic crust, forming an elongate, deep oceanic
trench.
Interaction between the down-going plate and the
overriding plate generates thrust slices (slabs of rock and
deformed sediment) sheared off of one or the other plate,
which are thrust ocean-ward, overtop of the down going
plate.
The subduction zone may also include abundant
sediment supplied to the trench (especially in humid
climates; ex. central Andean margin of South America).
Thrust and sediment load causes subsidence of the crust,
deepening the basin and creating large amounts of
additional accommodation space. This is a foredeep
basin: a basin that form from a combination of trench
(density driven) and load-driven subsidence in the downgoing (lower) plate. It is located ocean-ward of the
volcanic arc and is rimmed distally by an uplifted
forebulge. Ex: north Australian shelf-Banda Arc collision.

Foreland Basins.

Thickened crust of an island arc complex or

continental crust at the margin of the upper plate
leads to intense interaction between the downgoing plate and the upper plate. This generates
considerable additional thickening and
deformation of the upper plate via thrust slices
that stack up to form (together with the volcanoes)
a tall, complex mountain system and its isostatic
roots. Ex: Andes Mountains.
Thrusts migrate away from the collision
(subduction) zone toward the "foreland." Thrust
and sediment loads causes subsidence of the
crust forming a deep flexural basin (8-10 km
accommodation space) followed by an uplifted
forebulge and a much smaller second order basin
(a few 100s of meters A-space at most). Ex:
Amazon Foreland Basin.

Facies patterns.

Load-driven flexure is rapidly accommodated by

subsidence/uplift.
Rapid growth of accommodation space in the foreland or
foredeep basin leads to trapping of sediments in the
source area and strong transgression and sediment
starvation as relative water depth increases over a period
of 104 - 105 years.
Rapid uplift on the foreland or peripheral bulge results in
loss of accommodation space, but facies response varies
greatly with local conditions the state of eustatic sea level.
Possibilities range from subaerial exposure to prograding
carbonate or siliciclastic facies. Unlikely to exhibit
transgression.
Basin fill shows strong progradation of sediments filling
deep basin. Sediments grade upward and proximally from
black shales to flysch (mixed shale and turbiditic
litharenites), to near shore clastics (deltaic and shelf-like
sediments) to alluvial plane deposits (fans & rivers, etc.).
Early basin fill with abundant, well preserved organic
material.
As the system ages, the mountains erode and the
sediments become less volcanic, more plutonic and
metamorphic (granitic) source-rock dominated, and
become more mature both physically and chemically.
These late phase deposits are sometimes referred to as
mollasse.