Environment

Environment: to encircle or to surround

Definition

Environment : As per Environment (protection) Act, 1986,

environment includes all the physical and biological surroundings of
an organism along with their interactions. Environment is thus
defined as the sum total of water ,air and land and the interrelationships that exist among them and with the human beings and
other living organisms and material.

Urban and Rural environment

Urban environment : 1.Profound influence of human beings

- natural landscapes in cities have been
changed and modified by man-made artificial structures like multi
storeyed buildings ,commercial complexes ,factories , transportation
networks and so on.
-Urban air , water and soil are loaded with
various types of chemicals and wastes .
-Diversity of plants and animals is much less
and compared rural environment .
- Urban population is more dense and has
greater energy demands.

Scope of environmental studies

In the recent years , the scope of env. Studies has expended

dramatically the world over.Several career options have emerged in
this field that are broadly categorized as :
1.Research and development in env.
2.Green advocacy
3.Green marketing
4.Green media
5.Environment consultancy

Contd.

1.Research and development in env.:

a.) Skilled env. Scientists examine various problems in a scientific
way and carry out Rand D activities for developing cleaner
technologies and promoting sustainable development.
b.) Env. Mgmnt and env. engg,. Are emerging as new career
opportunities for for env. protection and mgmnt.
c.) Industries are finding it difficult to dispose off the wastes
produced as the pollution control laws are becoming more stringent.
d.) In order to avoid expensive litigation , companies are now trying
to adopt green tecnologies , which would reduce pollution.

Contd.

e.) Market for pollution control technology is increasing the world

over.
f.) Cleaning up of the wastes produced is another potential market .
It is estimated to be $ 100 billion dollars per year for all American
buisness.
Germany and Japan having more stringent laws for many years
hace gained more experience in reducing effluents.
g.) In India also the Pollution contril boards are seriously
implementing pollution control laws and insisting on upgradation of
effluents to meet prescribed standards before they are discharged
on land or into a water body . Many companies not complying with
the orders have been closed or ordered to shift.

Contd.

2.Green advocacy : With increasing emphasis on implementing

various Acts and Laws related to environment , need for
environmental lawyers has emerged , who should be able to plead
to the cases related to water and air pollution , forest , wildlife etc.

3. Green Marketing : While ensuring the quality of products with ISO

mark, there is an increasing emphasis on marketing goods that are
environment friendly . Such products have ecomark or ISO 14000
cetification .Environmental auditores and environmental managers
would be in great demand in the coing years .

Contd.

4.Green Media : Environmental awareness can be spread amongst

masses through mass media like television , radio, newspaper ,
magazines , hoardings , advertisements etc. for which
environmentally educated persons are required.

5. Environment consultancy : Many non-government organizations

(NGOs ) , industries and government bodies are engaging
environmental consultants for systematically studying and tackling
env. Realted problems.

Unit-1
Ecosystems

Ecosystem : An ecosystem is a self-regulating group of biotic

communities of species interacting with one another and with their
non-living environment exchanging energy and matter.

Ecology is defined as the study of ecosystems .

Ecology

Ecology : The term ecology was coned by Earnst and Haeckel in

1869.It is derived from the Greek words Oikos home +logos
study. So ecology deals with the study of organisms in their natural
home interacting with their surroundings .

The surrounding or environment consists of other living organisms

(biotic) and physical (abiotic) components.

Concept of Ecosystem

Natural habitat of various living entities : Forests , Grasslands ,

Oceans, Lakes, Rivers , Mountains, deserts and estuaries.

They ,however, show wide variations in their structural composition

and functions.

The living entities in them exchange matter and energy through

constant interaction with their surroundings.

Contd.

Some common questions asked :

How do these different unites like a hot desert , a dense evergreen
forest , the Antarctic Sea or a shallow pond differ in the type of their
flora and fauna , how do they they derive their energy and nutrients
to live together , how do they influence each other and regulate their
stability are the questions that are answered by ecology.

Contd.

An ecosystem :
1.is an integrated unit consisting of interacting plants, animals and
microorganisms whose survival depends upon the maintenance and
regulation of their biotic and abiotic structures and functions.

2.The ecosystem is thus , a unit or a system which is composed of a

number of sub-units , that are all directly or indirectly linked with
each other. They may be freely exchanging energy and matter from
outside-an open ecosystem or may be isolated from outside a
closed ecosystem.

Ecosystem Characteristics :

Despite the large variations in size , structure , compositions etc. ,

all ecosystems are characterized by certain basic structural and
functional features which are common:
1. Biotic structure and 2.) Abiotic Structure
1. Biotic Structure :
a.) The plants , animals and microorganisms present in an
ecosystem form the biotic component.
b.)These organisms have different nutritional behaviour and status
in the ecosystems and are accordingly known as the Producers and
Consumers , based on how they get their food.

Contd.

1.a.) Producers : Mainly green plants which can synthesize their food
themselves by making use of carbondioxide present in the air and
water in the presence of sunlight by involving chlorophylll , the green
pigment present in the leaves, through the process of photosynthesis.
They are also as photo autotrophs .

b.) There are some microorganisms also which can produce organic
matter to some extent through oxidation of certain chemicals in the
absence of sunlight. They are known as chemosynthetic organisms
or chemo-autotrophs. For instance in the ocean depths , where there
is no sunlight ,chemoautotrophs sulphur bacteria make use of the
heat generated by the decay of radioactive elements present in the
earths core and released in the ocean depths. They use this heat to
convert dissolved hydrogen sulphide and carbon dioxide into organic
compounds.

Contd.

2. Consumers : All organisms which get their organic food by

feeding upon other organisms are called consumers , which are of
the following types:

1.Herbivires (plant eaters): They feed directly on producers and

hence also known as the primary consumers. For example rabbit ,
insect , man.

2. Carnivires : (meat eaters) : They feed on other consumers .If they

feed on herbivores they are called secondary consumers (e.g. frog)
and if they feed on other carnivores (snake , big fish etc.) they are
known as tertiary carnivores /consumers .

Contd.

3. Omnivores: They feed on both plants and animals, e.g.

humans,rat , fox, many birds .

4.Detritivores : They feed on the parts of dead organisms , wastes of

living , their cast offs and partially decomposed matter e.g.
beetles , termites ,ants ,crabs , earthworms etc.
5.Decomposers : They derive their nutrition by breaking down the
complex organic molecules into inorganic nutrients . Various fungi
and bacteria are decomposers .

Contd.

In all the ecosystems , this biotic structure prevails .However in

some it is the primary producers which predominate (e.g. in forests ,
agroecosystems )while in others the dcomposers predominate (e.g.
deep ocean)

2. Abiotic structure : The physical and chemical components of an

ecosystem constitute its abiotic structure . It includes climatic factors
, edaphic(soil factors) , geographical factors , energy , nutrients and
toxic substances.

a.) Physical factors

b.) Chemical factors

Contd.

a.)Physical factors: The sunlight and shade , intensity of solar flux ,

duration of sub hours , average temperature ,maximum-minimum
temp. , annual rainfall , wind , latitude and altitude , soil type , water
availability , water currents etc. are some of the important physical
features which have a strong influence on the ecosystm.

Example : The striking differences in solar flux , teperarure and

precipitation ?(rainfall , snow etc.) pattern in a desert ecosystem , in
a tropical rainforest and in tundra ecosystem.

Contd.

b.) Chemical factors: Availability of major essential nutrients like

carbon , nitrogen , phosphorous , potassiu , hydrogen , oxygen and
sulphur , level of toxic substances , salts, causing salinity and
various organic substances present in the soil or water largely
influence the functioning of the ecosystem.

All the biotic components of an ecosystem are influenced by the

abiotic components and vice versa , and they are linked together
through energy flow matter cycling.

Functional attributes of an ecosystem :

Every ecosystem performs under natural conditions in a systematic
way.
1.It receives energy from the sun and passes it on through various
biotic and abiotic componenets and infact , all life depends upon this
flow of energy .
2.Besides energy various nutrients and water are also required for life
processes which are exchanged by the biotic components within
themselves and with their abiotic componenet swithin or outside the
ecosystem.
3.The biotic comp. also regulate themselves in a very systematic
manner and show mechanisms to encounter some degree of env,
stress.

Contd.

Major functional attributes of ecosystem :

1. Food chain , food webs and trophic structure
2.Energy flow
3. Cycling of nutrients (Biogeochemical cycles)
4. Primary and secondary production
5. Ecosystem development and regulation

Trophic structure

The structure and functions of the ecosystems are very closely

related and influence each other intimately:
1. The flow of energy and nutrients is mediated through a series of
feeding relationships in a definite sequence or pattern which is
known as the food chain.
2. The producers and consumers are arranged in the ecosystem in
a definite manner and their interaction along with the population
size are expressed as tropic structure.
3. Each food level is known as trophic level and the amount of living
matter at each trophic level at a given time is known as standing
crop or standing biomass.

Food chains

The sequence of eating and being eaten in an ecosystem is known

as food chain.
All organisms , living poor dead , are potential food for some other
organism and thus, there is essentially no waste in the functioning of
a natural ecosystem . A caterpillar eats a plant leaf; a sparrow eats
the caterpillar , a cat or a hawk eats the sparrow and when they all
die , they are all consumed by micoorganisms like bacteria or fungi
(decomposers) which break down the organic matter and convert it
into simple inorganic substances that can gain be used by the plants
the primary producres.

Contd.

Some common examples of simple food chains are:

1.Grass------- Grasshopper---------- Frog--- Snake ----
Hawk(Grassland ecosystem)

2. Photoplanktons ---- Water fleas----- small fish----- Tuna

(Pond ecosystem)

3. Lichens------- reindeer------- Man (Arctic Tundra)

Contd.

1.Each organism in the ecosystem is assigned a feeding level or

trophic level depending upon its nutritional status.
Thus in the grassland food chain , grasshopper occupies the 1 st
trophic level , frog the 2nd and snake and hawk occupy the 3rd and
the 4th trophic levels , respectively . The decomposers consume the
dead matterof all these trophic levels.

Two major types of food chains

1.Grazing food chains

2. Detritus food chains

Grazing food chain

It starts with green plants (primary producres) and culminates in the

carnivores .
Example : Grass - Rabbit--- Fox

Detritus food chains

It starts with dead organic matter which the detritivores and

decomposers consume. Partially decomposed dead organic matter
and even decomposers are consumed by detritivores and their
predators . An example of the detritus food chain is the mangrove
(estuary)

1. Here , a large quantity of leaf material falls in the form of litter into
the water.

2. The leaf fragmenst are eaten by saprotrophs .(saprotrophs are

those organisms which feed on dead organic matter ).

Contd.

3.These fallen leaves are colonized by small algae , which are also
consumed by the saprotrophs of detritivores consisting of crabs ,
mollusks , shrimps , insect larvae , nematodes and fishes. The
detritivores are eaten by small carnivorous fishes , which in turn are
eaten by large carnivorous fishes.

Leaf- algae- crabs-- crabs--- small carnivorous fish

(Mangrove ecosystem)

Dead organic matter -- fungi-- bacteria (Forest ecosystem)

CONTD.

Thus the grazing food chain derives it senergy basically from plant
energy while in the detritus food chain it is obtained primarily from
palnt biomass , secondarily from microbial biomass and tertiarily
from carnivores .Both the food chains occur together in natural
ecosystems , but grazing food chain usually predominates.

Food web

Food chains in ecosystems are rarely found to operate as isolated

linear sequences.Rather , they are found to be interconnected and
usually form a complex network with several linkages and are
known as food webs. Thus, food web is a network of food chains
where different types of organisms are connected at different trophic
levels , so that there are a number of options of eating and being
eaten at each trophic level.

Why has nature evolved food webs

in ecosystem :
1.Food webs give greater stability to the ecosystem.
2. In a linear food chain , if one species becomes extinct or one
species suffers then the species in the subsequent trophic levels are
also affected.
3. In a food web , on the other hand , there are a number of options
available at each trophic level .So, if one of the species is affected ,
it does not affect other trophic levels so seriouslly.
Example of a simple food chain :
Cladonia-> Reindeer -> Man
Grass -> Caribou-> Wolf

Contd.
If due to some stress, the population of reindeer or
caribou falls, it will leave little option for man or wolf to
eatr from the ecosystem . Had there been more
biodiversity ,it would have led to complex food giving the
ecosystem more stability.

Significance of food chains and food webs

1. The two important functions of energy flow and nutrient cycling

take place through food chains and food webs.
2. The food chains also help in maintaining and regulating the
population size of different size of different animals and thus, help
maintain the ecological balance .
3. Food chains show a unique property of biological magnification of
some chemicals. There are several pesticides , heavy metals and
other chemicals which are non-biodegradable in nature. Such
chemicals are not decomposed by microorganisms and they keep
on passing from one trophic level to another. And , at each
successive trophic level , they keep on increasing in
concentration .This phenomenon is known as biomagnification or
biological magnification.

Case study

Biomagnification of DDT: A striking case of biomagnification of DDT

(A broad range insecticide) was observed when some birds like
Osprey were found to suffer a sharp decline in their population. The
young ones of these birds were found to hatch out in premature
condition leading to their death. This was later found to be due to
bio-magnification of DDT through the food chain. DDT sprayed for
pest control was in very low concentration, but its concentration
increased along the food chain through phytoplanktons to
Zooplanktons and then to fish which was eaten by the birds. The
concentration of DDT was magnified several thousand times in the
birds which caused thinning of the shelves in the birdss egges ,
causing death of the young ones .

Contd.

It becomes very clear from the above instance that the animals
occupying the higher trophic levels are at a greater risk of
Biomagnification of toxic chemicals .Human beings consuming milk,
eggs, and meat are at a higher trophic level. So, we have to stop
indiscriminate use of pestcides and heavy metals if we wish to save
ourselves form their biologically magnified levels.

The Four Spheres of the Earth

The area near the surface of the earth can be divided up into four interconnected "geo-spheres:" the lithosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere,
and atmosphere. Scientists can classify life and material on or near
the surface of the earth to be in any of these four spheres.The names
of the four spheres are derived from the Greek words for stone (litho),
air (atmo), water (hydro), and life (bio).

Lithosphere

The lithosphere is the solid, rocky crust covering entire planet. This
crust is inorganic and is composed of minerals. It covers the entire
surface of the earth from the top of Mount Everest to the bottom of
the Mariana Trench.

Hydrosphere
The hydrosphere is composed of all of the water on or
near the earth. This includes the oceans, rivers, lakes,
and even the moisture in the air. Ninety-seven percent of
the earth's water is in the oceans. The remaining three
percent is fresh water; three-quarters of the fresh water
is solid and exists in ice sheets

Biosphere
The biosphere is composed of all living organisms.
Plants, animals, and one-celled organisms are all
part of the biosphere. Most of the planet's life is
found from three meters below the ground to thirty
meters above it and in the top 200 meters of the
oceans and seas.

Atmosphere

The atmosphere is the body of air which surrounds our planet. Most
of our atmosphere is located close to the earth's surface where it is
most dense. The air of our planet is 79% nitrogen and just under
21% oxygen; the small amount remaining is composed of carbon
dioxide and other gasses.

Contd.
All four spheres can be and often are present
in a single location. For example, a piece of
soil will of course have mineral material from
the lithosphere. Additionally, there will be
elements of the hydrosphere present as
moisture within the soil, the biosphere as
insects and plants, and even the atmosphere
as pockets of air between soil pieces.

Biosphere
The term "biosphere" was coined by geologist Eduard
Suess in 1875, which he defined as:
"The place on Earth's surface where life dwells."

Contd.
The biosphere is the global sum of all ecosystems. It
can also be called the zone of life on Earth, a closed
(apart from solar and cosmic radiation), and selfregulating system. From the broadest biophysiological
point of view, the biosphere is the global
ecologicalsystem integrating all living beings and their
relationships, including their interaction with the
elements of the lithosphere, hydrosphere and
atmosphere.

Contd.
The biosphere is postulated to have evolved, beginning
through a process of biogenesis or biopoesis, at least
some 3.5 billion years ago.

Hydrosphere
The hydrosphere is the liquid water component of the
Earth. It includes the oceans, seas, lakes, ponds, rivers
and streams. The hydrosphere covers about 70% of the
surface of the Earth and is the home for many plants and
animals.

Contd.
1.The hydrosphere, like the atmosphere, is always in
motion.
2.The motion of rivers and streams can be easily seen,
while the motion of the water within lakes and ponds is
less obvious.
3.Some of the motion of the oceans and seas can be
easily seen while the large scale motions that move
water great distances such as between the tropics and
poles or between continents are more difficult to see.

Contd.
4.These types of motions are in the form of currents that
move the warm waters in the tropics toward the poles,
and colder water from the polar regions toward the
tropics. These currents exist on the surface of the ocean
and at great depths in the ocean (up to about 4km).

Characteristics of the ocean

affecting its motion:
1. Temperature
2. Salinity

Contd.
1.Warm water which is less dense or lighter tends to
move up toward the surface ,while colder water is more
dense or heavier and therefore tends to sink to the
bottom.
2. Salty water is also more dense or heavier and thus
tends to sink ,while fresh or less salty water is less or
lighter and thus tends to rise to the surface.

Contd.
3.The oceans currents are also affected by the motion of
the atmosphere, or winds, above it. The energy in the
wind gets transferred to the ocean at the ocean surface
affecting the motion of the water there. The effect of wind
is largest at the ocean surface.

The two important purposes of the

ocean:
1. It is a large reservoir of chemicals that can contribute
to the greenhouse effect in the atmosphere and energy
absorbing 90% of the solar radiation which hits the
surface.
2. It works with the atmosphere to redistribute the energy
received from the sun such that heat in the tropics is
trnseferred to the poles where the heat is generally lost
to the space.

Biodiversity
Biodiversity refers to the variety and variability among all
groups of living organisms and the ecosystem
complexes in which they occur.
A marvelous spectrum of life occurs in all forms, sizes
,colors and shapes in all types of ecosystems ranging
from the dreist deserts to the dense tropical rainforests
and from the high snow-clad mountain peaks to the
deepest of the ocean trenches .
Each form of life has its own unique ecological
relationship with its surroundings.

Contd.

In the convention of Biological Diversity (1992) , biodiversity has

been defined as the variability among living organisms from all
sources including terrestrial , marine and other aquatic ecosystems
and the ecological complexes of which they are a part.

Levels of Biodiversity
Units of Biodiversity may range from the genetic level
within a species to the biota ( combined flora and fauna
of a region) in a specific region and may extend up to a
great diversity found in different biomes( a major regional
or global community such as grasslands or deserts)

Genetic Diversity
Genes are the basic units of hereditary information
transmitted from one generation to other. When genes
within the same species show different versions due to
new combinations ,it is called genetic variability . For
example , all rice varieties belong to the species Oryza
Sativa , but there are thousands of wild and cultivated
varieties which show variations at the genertic level and
differ in their colour ,size , shape , aroma, and nutrient
content of the grain. This is called the genetic diversity of
rice.

Species diversity
This is the variability found within the population of a
species or between different species of a community .It
represents broadly the species richness and their
abundance in a community .

Number of species on this

biosphere :
The current estimates given by the Wilson 1992 put the
total number of living species in a range of 10 million to
50 million.
Till now only about 1.5 million living and 300,000 fossil
species have been actually described and given
scientific names. It is quite likely that a large fraction of
these species may become extinct even before they are
discovered and enlisted.

Ecosystem Diversity
1.is the ecological complexity showing variations in
ecological niches , trophic structure , food-webs , nutrient
cycling etc.
2. The ecosystems also show varaitions with respect to
physical parameters like moisture , temperature ,altitude
, precipitation etc.
Thus , there occurs tremendous diversity within the
ecosystem along these gradients

Contd.
Example : Forest Ecosystem :
It mainly has the dominance of trees.
But if one were to study tropical rainforest , a tropical
deciduous forest , a temperate deciduous forest and a
boreal forest , one would find a huge variation because
of the physical factors involved.

Importance of Diversity
1.Developed over millions of years of evolution.
2. Destruction of this diversity would lead to disruption in
the ecological balance.
3. One kind of diversity cannot be replaced with
another .Example : Coniferous trees of the boreal forests
cannot take up the function of the trees of tropical
deciduous forests and vice versa because the
ecosystem diversity has evolved with respect to the
prevailing environmental conditions with well regulated
ecological balance.

Biogeographically classification of
India
1.India has different types of climate and topography in
different parts of the country and these variations have
induced enormous variability in flora and fauna.
2. India has a rich heritage of biological diversity and
occupies the tenth position among the plant rich nations
of the world.

Indias major biographic habitats

1.Upper regions of the Trans Himalayan Zone - Important
Flora and Fauna- Pine ,Deodar ;Wild sheep ,Yak,
,Tibetan Ass ,Snow Leopard Marmot ,Wolf, Black necked
crane .
2. Himalyan Zone of North-west,west , Centarl and
Eastern region :
Flora and Fauna found: Pine, Corktree,Sal,
Dhaak(Butea),Castor
Wild Bear ,Sambar, Leopard ,Sikkim Stag, Musk Deer

Contd.
3. Semi arid zone of Central India Gujarat Rajwara :
Flora and Fauna found :Acacia ,Date ,Palm ,Peepal
Gir Lion, Tiger and Sariska and Ranthambhore (Tiger
reserves)
4. Western Ghat Zone of Malabar coast ;western ghat
;Mountain region: Sheesham ;Peepal, Tuna; Bahera;
Tortoise ,Frog; Lizards ,Snakes
5. Desert Zone of Hutch ,Thar,Ladakh
Flora and Fauna found : Acacia ,Zizphus,Khejri ,Date
palm ,Bastard ,Wild ass,Desert ,Cat,Fox ,RAT

Contd.
6. Deccan Peninsula : Deccan plateau South-Central
plateau , Eastern plateau ,Chhota Nagpur ,centarl
Highlands
Flora and Fauna found: Acacia ,Palaash, ,Tuan, Pine ,
Castor ,
Sambar, Sloth bear ,Tiger ,Chhetal ,Four horned stag ,
Wild elephant ,wild buffalo
7. Gangetic plain: upper gangetic plain;Lower ganegtic
plain:
Flora and Fauna found: Sal,Acacia , Jamun, Mango ,
Bael

Contd.
Black chinkara ,Stag, Rhinoceros, Gazzel ,Alligator,
Turtle
8. North East India Zone of Bramaputra VALLEY ;North
Eastern Hills : Bamboo ,Sal, Jack fruit, Tuna,
Chestnut ,Castor,
Elephant ,Rhinoceros ,Yak ,Deer ,Porcupine
9. Islands :Andaman Islands ;Niocorbar Islands
;Lakshadweep Islands

Contd.
Flora and Fauna found : Bahera,Harar ,Jack fruit,
Cardamom, Coconut, Cloves , Dolphin, Alligator
,Molluscs
10. Coasts : West coast and East coast : Cocunut
,Banana ,Cashew nut
Dugong,Dolphin ,Turtle ,Alligator,Molluscs.

Value of Biodiversity

1.Consumptive use value

2. Productive use value
3. Social value
4. Ethical value
5. Aesthetic value
6. Option values
7.Ecosystem service value

Value of Biodiversity

The value of Biodiversity in terms of its commercial utility , ecological services ,social and aesthetic value in enormous.
The multiple uses of Biodiversity :
(1.) Consumptive use or value: These are direct use values where the biodiversity product can be harvested and consumed directly e.g. fuel, food ,drugs, fibre etc.
b.) Food : A large number of wildplants are consumed by human beings .
Edible plant species reported from the wild : 80,000.
90% of the present day food crops have been domesticted from wild tropical plants.

Contd.

Our agricultural scientists make use of the existing wild species of

plants that are closely related to our crop plants for developing new
hardy strains. Wild relatives usualy possess better tolerance and
hardiness.
A large number of wild animals are also our sources of food.
2. Drugs and medicine : About 75% of the worlds population
depends upon plants or plant extracts for medicines.The wonder
drug Pencillin used as an antibiotic is derived from a fungus called
Pencillium.
Tetracylin is obtained from a bacterium
Quinine is obtained from the bark of Cinchona tree
Digitalin is obtained from foxglove(a cure of heart ailments)

Contd.

Vinblastin and Vincristine , two anti-cancer drugs have been

obtained from Periwinkle(catharanthus)plant (it possesses anticancer alkaloids)

A large number of marine animals are supposed to possess anticancer properties which are supposed to be explored systematically.

Fuel: Our forests have been used since ages for fuel wood. The
fossil fuels coal, petroleum and natural gas are also products of
fossilized biodiversity. Firewood collected by individuals are not
normally marketed , but are directly consumed by tribals and local
vilagers , hence falls under consumptive value.

Contd.

(2.) Productive use values: These are the commercially usable

values where the product is marketed and sold. It may include
lumber or wild gene resources that can be traded for use by
scientists for introducing desirable traits in the crops and
domesticated animals.
Examples: Animal products like tusks of elephants, musk from musk
deer, ,silk from silk-worm, wool from sheep , fur of many animals,
lac from lac insects etc., all of which are traded in the market.
Indsutries dependent upon the productive use values of biodiversity
e.g., -the paper and pulp industry , plywood industry , railway,
sleeper industry , silk industry, textile industry , ivory-works, leather
industry, pearl industry etc.

Contd.

Note : Despite international ban on trade in products from endangered

species , smuggling of fur, hide , horns, live specimen etc. worth
millins of dollars are being sold every year .
Developing countries in Asia ,Africa, and latin America are the richest
biodiversity centers and wildlife products are smuggled and marketed
in large quantities to some rich westerbn countries and also to China
and Hong Kong where export of cat skin and snake is booming
buisness.

Contd.
(3.) Social value : These are the values associated with the social
life , customs , religion and psycho-spiritual aspects of the people
.Many of the plants are considered holy and sacred in our country.
Plants considered sacred: Tulsi(holy basil), Peepal, Mango, Lotus,
Bael etc.
The tribal people are very closely linked with the wildlife in the forests.
Their social life , songs, dances and customs are closely linked
woven around the wildlife.
Many animals like cow, snake, bull , peacock, owl etc. also have a
significant place in our psycho spiritual arena and thus hold special
social importance .

Ethical value

4.Ethical value : It is also known as existence value . It involves

ethical issues like all life must be preserved. It is based on the
concept of live and let live . If we want our human race to survive ,
then we must protect all biodiversity , because biodiversity is
valuable.
We are not deriving anything directly from kangaroo ir giraffe , but
we all strongly feel that these species should exist in nature . This
means that there is an ethical value or existence value attached to
each species.

Aesthetic value

5.Aesthetic value : None of us would like to visit vast stretches of

barren lands with no signs of visible life. People from far and wide
spend a lot of time and money to visit wilderness areas where they
can enjoy the aesthetic value of biodiversity and this type of tourism
is known as Eco-tourism. The willingness to pay concept on such
eco-tourism gives us even a monetary estimate for aesthetic value
of biodiversity. Ecotourism is expected to genrate about 12 billion
dollars of revenue annually , that roughly gives the aesthetic value
of biodiversity.

Option Values

6. Option values: These values include the potentials of biodiversity

that are presently unknown and need to be explored. There is a
possibility that we may be able to find a cure for AIDS or cancer
existing within the depths of a marine ecosystem , or a tropical
rainforest.
Thus option value is the value of knowing that there are biological
resources existing on this biosphere that may one day prove to be
an effective option for something important in future .
Going by this line of thinking any species may prove to be a miracle
species one day.

Ecosystem service value

7 Recently a non-consumptive use of value related to self

maintenance of the ecosystem and various important ecosystem
services has been recognized . This refers to the services provided
by the ecosystem like prevention of soil erosion , prevention of
floods , maintenance of soil fertility ,cycling of nutrients , fixation of
nitrogen , cycling of water , their role as carbon sinks , pollutant
absorption and reduction of threat of global warming etc.

Contd.
All the categories of Biodiversity value
clearly indicate that ecosystem , species
and genetic diversity have enormous
potential value and a decline in
biodiversity will lead to huge economic ,
ecological and socio-cultural losses.

Global Biodiversity

1. 1992 Earth Summit at Rio de Janerio revealed that there was a

growing need to know and scientifically name the huge number of
species which are still unknown on this earth.

2. Roughly 1.5 million species are known till date which is perhaps
15% or may be just 2% of the actual number.

3.Tropical deforestation alone is reducing the biodiversity by half a

percent every year. Mapping the Biodiversity has, therefore, been
recognized as an emergency task in order to plan its conservation
and practical utilization in a judicious manner.

Terrestrial Biodiversity
Terrestrial Biodiversity of the earth is best described as
biomes, which are the largest ecological units present in
different geographic areas and are named after the
dominant vegetation e.g. the tropical rainforests , tall
grass prairies ,savannas , tundra etc.

Contd.

Inhabitants of the tropical rainforests: Millions of species of plants ,

birds, amphibians , insects as well as mammals.

Many of these species have developed over the time in highly

specialized niches and that makes them more vulnerable to
extinction when their natural home or niche is destroyed.

About 50-80% of global biodiversity lies in these rainforests . More

than one-fourth of the worlds prescription drugs are extracted from
plants growing in tropical rainforests.

Contd.

Out of the 3000 plants identified by National Cancer research

Institute as sources of cancer fighting chemicals , 70% come from
tropical rain forests.

Extracts from the creeping vines in the rainforests at Cameroon

have proved effective in the inhibition of ;This has now gained
popularity even in the western countries.

Protecting Biodiversity

The silent valley in Kerela is the only place in India where tropical
rain forests occur. There was abandoned mainly because it had put
to risk our only tropical rain forest biodiversity .

Biological Diversity at national

level:
Every country is characterized by it sown biodiverity
depending mainly upon its climate. India has a rich
biological diversity of flora and fauna. Overall six percent
of the global species are found in India .It is estimated
that India ranks 10th among the plant rich countries of the
world , 11th in terms of number of endemic species of
higher vertebrates and 6th among the centers of diversity
and origin of agricultural crops.

Contd.

1.The total number of living species identified in our country is

1,50,000 .
2.Out of a total of 25 Biodiversity hot-spots in the world , India
possesses two, one in the north east region(eastern Himalayas)
and one in the western ghats.
3.India is also one of the 12 mega-biodiversity countries in the
world.

India as a Mega Diversity Nation

1. India is one of the 12 mega-diversity countries in the world .

The Ministry of Environment and Forests ,Government of India
(2000) records 47,000 species of plants and 81,000 species of
animals which is about 7% and 6.5 % respectively of the global flora
and fauna.

Contd.

1. Endemism: Species which are restricted to only to a particular

area are known as endemic . India shows a good number of
endemic species .About 62% of the amphibians and 50/5 of lizards
are endemic to India .Western Ghats are the site of maximum
endemism.
2.Center of origin: A large number of species are known to have
originated in India .Nearly 5,000 species of flowering plants ahd
their origin in India.
Agro-Diversity point of view:- center of origin of 166 species of crop
plants and 320 species of wild relatives of cultivated crops , thereby
providing a broad spectrum of traits for our crop plants.

Contd.

Marine Diversity : 1.) Along 7500 km long coastline of our country in

the mangroves , estuaries , coral reefs , backwaters tec. There
axists rich biodiversity. More than 340 species of the corals of the
world are found here .

The marine diversity is rich in mollusks , crustaceans (crabs etc.) ,

polychates( a type of worm) and corals. Several species of
mangrove plants and seagrasses (Marine algae are also found in
our country.

A large proportion of the Indian biodiversity is still unexplored .There

are about 93 major wet lands , coral reefs and mangroves which
need to be studied in detail.

Contd.

Indian forests cover 64.1 million hectares having a rich biodiversity

of plants in then Trans-Himalayan forests, western ghats, coasts,
deserts, gangetic plains, deccan plateau and the Andaman ,Nicobar
and Lakshdweep islands. Due to very diverse climatic conditions
there is a complete rainbow spectrum of biodiversity in our country.

Hotspots of Biodiversity

Areas which exhibit high species richness as well as high species

endemism are termed as hot spots of Biodiversity.

There are 25 such hotspots of biodiversity on a global level out of

which two are present in India , namely the Eastern Himalayas and
Western Ghats.

Threats to Biodiversity

1. Extinction
2.Loss of habitat
3.Poaching
4. Man-Wildlife conflicts

Contd.

1.Extinction: is a natural process of evolution .

The process of extinction has become particularly fast in the recent

years of human civilization.

2. Loss of habitat : Destruction and loss of natural habitat is the

single largest cause of biodiversity loss. Billions of hectares of
forests and grasslands have been cleared over the past 10,000
years for conversion into agricultural lands, pastures, settlement
areas or development projects. Severe damage has been caused to
wetlands thinking them to be useless ecosystems.

Contd.

Poaching : Illegal trade of wildlife products by killing prohibited

endangered animals i.e. poaching is another threat to wildlife
.Despite international ban on trade in products from endangered
species , smuggling of wildlife items like furs , hides , tusks , live
specimens and herbal products worth millions of dollars per year
continues. The developing nations in Asia ,Latin America and Africa
are the richest sources of biodiversity and have enormous wealth of
wildlife. The rich countries in Europe and North America and some
affluent countries in Asia like Japan ,Taiwan and Hong Kong are the
major importers of the wildlife products or Wildlife itself.

Contd.

1. The trading of such wildlife products is highly profit making for the
poachers who just hunt these prohibited wildlife and smuggle it to
other countries mediated through a mafia.

THE COST OF ELEPHANT TUSKS : Upto $ 100 per kg.

THE COST OF ALEOPARD FUR COAT : $ 100,000 IN Japan
BIRD CATCHERS CAN FETCH UPTO $10,000 FOR A ARE
HYACINTH MACOW (a beautiful bird from Brazil)

Contd.

3. Man-Wildlife Conflicts : Sometimes wildlife causes immense

damage and danger to man and under such conditions it becomes
very difficult for the forest department to pacify the affected villagers
and gain local support for wildlife.

Instances of man-animal conflicts :

1. In Sambalpur , Orissa 195 humans were killed in the alst 5 years
by elephants.In retaliation the villagers killed 98 elephants and badly
injured 30 elephants .
2. Several instances of killing of elephants in the border regions of
Kote Chamarajanagar belt in Mysore have been reported.

Contd.

The man-elephant conflict in this region arose because of the

massive damage done by the elephants to the farmers cotton and
sugarcane crops. The agonized villagers electrocute the elephants
and sometimes hide explosives in the sugarcane fields to frighetn
them away.

Contd.

More killings are done by locals than by poachers.

In 2004 a man eating Tiger was reported to kill 16 Nepalese people
and one 4-year old child inside the Royal Chitwan Nationla park ,
240 km south west of Kathmandu.

The park renowned for its wildlife conservation effort has become a
zone of terror for the locals.

Causes of man-animal conflicts

1. Dwindling habitats of tigers , elephants , rhinos and bears due to

shrinking forest cover compels them to move outside the forest and
attack the field or sometimes even humans.
2.Human encroachment into the forest areas raises a conflict
between man and wildlife , perhaps because it is an issue of
survival for both.
3. Usually the ill , weak and injured animals have a tendency to
attack man .Also, the female tigress attacks the humans if she feels
that her new born cubs are in danger.
But once the human flesh is tasted , the tiger does not eat any other
animal.

Contd.

4.Very often the villagers put electric wiring around the their ripe
crop fields.The elephants get injured and turn violent .

5. The cash compenastion paid by the governmnet in lieu of the

damage caused to the farmers crop is inadequate . In Mysore a
farmer gets a compensation of Rs.400/- per quintal of expected
yield while the market price is Rs. 2,400/- per quintal .The agonized
farmer therefore gets revengeful and kills the wild animals.

Remedial measures to curb the

conflict

1. Tiger conservation project has made provisions for making

available vehicles , tranquilizer guns, binoculars and radio sets etc.
to tactfully deal with any imminen et danger.

2. Adequate compensation and cattle compensation scehme must

be started , along with substantial cash compensation for loss of
human life.

3.Solar powered fencing should be provided alongwith electric

current proof trenches to prevent the animals from straying into
fields.

Contd.

4. Cropping pattern should be changed near the forest borders and

adequate fodder , fruit and water should be made avalible for the
elephants within the forest zone.

5. Wildlife corridors should be provided for mass migration of big

animals during unfavorable periods. About 300 km area is required
for elephant corridors for their seasonal migration.

6.In Similipal Sanctuary , Orissa there is a ritual of wildlife animal

hunting during months of April- May for which forest is burnt to flush
out the animals. Due to the massive hunting by people , there is a
decline in prey of tigers and they start coming out of the forest in
search of prey .Now there is WWF-TCP initiative to curb this ritual of
Akhand Shikar in Orissa.

Conservation of Biodiversity

Gradually we are coming to realize that wildlife is not just a game to

be hunted, rather a gift of nature to be nurtured and enjoyed.

A number of measures are being taken the world over to conserve

the Biodiversity including plants and wildlife.

Two approaches to biodiversity conservation:

1. In situ conservation (within habitat) :This sis achieved by

protection of wild flora and fauna in nature iteself e.g. Biosphere
Reserves, National PARKS ,Sanctuaries, Reserve Forests etc.

Contd.

2. Ex situ conservation (outside habitats ) :This is done by

establishment of gene banks , seed banks , zoos , bootanical
gardens , culture collections.

In situ conservation

At present we have 7 major Biosphere reserves , 80 National parks ,

420 wildlife sanctuaries and 120 Botanical gardens in our country
covering 4% of the geographic area.

The Biosphere Reserves

The biosphere reserves conserve some representative ecosystems

as a whole for long-term in situ conservation. In India we have :
Nanda Devi (U.P) , Nokrek(Meghalya) , Manas (Assam) ,
Sunderbans(west Bengal) , Gulf of Mannar (Tamil Nadu), Nilgiri
(Karnataka, Kerela, Tamil Nadu), Great Nicobars and Similipal
(Orissa) biosphere reserves .
Within the Biosphere reserves we may have one or more National
Parks .For example , Nilgiri Biosphere reserve has two National
Parks viz., Bandipur and Nagarhole National park.

Contd.

A national park is an area dedicated for the conservation of wildlife

alongwith its environment .It is alos meant for enjoyment through
tourism but without imapring the env.

Grazing of domestic animals , all private rights and forestry

activities are prohibited within a NATIONAL Park .Each National
park usually aims at conservation specifically of some particular
species of wildlife along with others.

Contd.

Some major National parks of our country are as follows:

1. Kaziranga : Assam
2. Gir national park : Gujarat
3. Dachigam : Jand K
4. Bandipur : Karnataka
5. Periyar : Kerala
6. Kanha: M.P.
7. Corbett :Uttarakhand
8. Dudwa :U.P
9. Ranthambhore :Rajasthan
10.Sariska : Rajasthan

Wildlife sanctuaries

Wildlife sanctuaries are also protected areas where killing ,

hunting ,shooting or capturing of wildlife is prohibited except under
the control of highest authority. However, private ownership rights
are permissible and forestry operations are also permitted to an
extent that they do not affect the wildlife adversely.

Contd.

Some important wildlife sanctuaries in India :

1.Ghana Bird sanctuary :rajasthan
2. Hazaribagh Sanctuary :Bihar
3. Sultanpur Bird Sanctuary :Haryana
4. Nal Sarovar

Contd.

Some important wildlife sanctuaries in India :

1.Ghana Bird sanctuary :rajasthan
2. Hazaribagh Sanctuary :Bihar
3. Sultanpur Bird Sanctuary :Haryana
4. Nal Sarovar ; Gujarat
5. Abohar Wildlife Sanctuary :Punjab
6. Mudamalai Wildlife Sanctuary :Tamil Nadu
7. Jaldapara Wildlife Sanctuary :W.Bengal
8. Wild Ass Sanctuary :Gujarat

Plant Sanctuary

For plants there is one gene sanctuary for citrus (Lemon family)
And one for pitcher plant (an insect eating plant) in Northeast Indai.

Conservation contd.

Projects to protect and conserve wildlife :

1. Project tiger
2. Gir Lion project
3. Crocodile Breeding project
4.Project elephant
5. Snow leopard project

Ex situ conservation

This type of conservation is mainly done for conservation of crop

varieties , the wild relatives of crops and all the local varieties with
the main objective of conserving the total genetic variability of the
crop species for future crop improvement or afforestation
programmes. In India , we have the following important gene
bank /seed bank facilities :
1.National Bureau of plant Genetic Resources :new Delhi
2. National Bureau of Animal Genetic Resources :Karnal,Haryana
3. National Facility for plant tissue culture repository
The G-15 countries have also resolved to set up a network of gene
banks to facilitate the conservation of various varieties of aromatic
and medicinal plants for which India is the networking co-ordinator
country.

Sustainable development

Sustainable development underscores that rate of consumption or

use of natural resources should approximate the rate at which these
resources can be substituted or replaced. It further requires that a
nation or society is able to satisfy its requirements social ,
economic and others without jeopardizing the interest of the future
generations.

Sustainable development is defined as meeting the needs of the

present without compromising the ability of the future generations to
meet their own needs.

Contd.

To test whether or not a proposal will achieve the goals of

sustainability ,one must find out whether :
1. it protects our Biodiversity
2. it prevents soil erosion
3. it slows down population growth
4. it increases forest cover
5. it cuts off the emissions of CFC,SO,NO AND CO2
6.it reduces waste generation
7.it brings benefit to all

Sate of development uptil now:

1. Development has just been human oriented , that too for a few
rich nations.
2. Developments in the field of science and technology have
enhanced the levels of pollution to an unprecedented degree
Eg. Contaminated water
Polluted air
Adulterated food
This is an example of unsustainable development which will lead to
a total collapse of the interrelated systems of this earth.

Contd.

1.Fears about such unsustainable growth and development started

in 1970s . But a clear discussion on sustainable development
emerged on an international level in 1992 , in the UN conference on
Envronment and Development (UNCED) , popularly known as the
Earth summit , held at Rio De Janeiro ,Brazil .

Out of its five significant agreements Agenda 21 proposes a global

programme of action on sustainable development in social ,
economic and political context for the 21st century.

Contd.

Measures for sustainable development:

1. Inter-generational equity
2.Intra-generational equity

Contd.

The essence of the declaration :

a new and equitable global partnership through the creation of new
levels cooperation among states

Contd.

1. Inter-generational equity: This emphasizes that we shou7ld

minimize any adverse impacts on our resources and environment
for future generations i.e. we should hand over a safe , healthy and
resourceful environment to our future generations .This can be
possible only if we stop over-exploitation of resources , reduce
waste discharge and emissions and maintain ecological balance.

Intra-generational equity

This emphasizes that the development processes should seek to

minimize the wealth gaps within and between nations. The Human
Development Report of United Nations (2001) emphasizes that
benefits of technology should seek to achieve the goals of intrgenerational equity. The technology should address the problems of
the developing countries, producing drought tolerant varieties for
uncertain climates ,vaccines for infectious diseases , clean fuesl for
domestic and industrail use .This type of tecnological development
will support the economic growth of the ppor countries and help in
narrowing the wealth gap and lead to sustainability.

Measures for Sustainable development

Using appropriate technology:
1.
One which is locally adaptable , eco-friendly , resource efficient
and culturally suitable.
2.
It mostly involves lo\cal resources and local labour .
3.
Indigenous technologies are more useful ,cost effective and
sustainable. Nature is often taken as a model ,using the natural
conditions of that region as its components .This concept is
known as design with nature.
The technology should use less of resources and shold produce
minimum waste.

Contd.

1.Reduce ,Reuse ,recycle approach

2. Prompting environmental education and awareness
3. Resource utilization as per carrying capacity : any system can
sustain a limited number of organisms on a long-term basis which
is known as its carrying capacity. For this one must stop the over
exploitation of resources.

Carrying capacity has two basic components :

1.Supporting capacity i.e. the capacity to regenerate
2.Assimilative capacity : i.e. the capacity to tolerate different
stresses

Stockholm Conference on Env. ,

1972

The United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, having

met at Stockholm from 5 to 16 June 1972,having considered the
need for a common outlook and for common principles to inspire
and guide the peoples of the world in the preservation and
enhancement of the human environment,
Proclaims that:
1. Humans have the fundamental right to freedom , equlaity and
adequate conditions of life in an environment of equality that permits
a life of dignity and well-being.
2. Human beings have responsibility to protect and improve the
environment for the present and future generations.

Contd.

The following two strategies emerged in this conference :

1. The principles and action plan were evolved for controlling and
regulating human environment

2. Institutional and financial arrangements were proposed for

achieving the goal for regulating human environment . This has
been called the Magna Carta on environment.

Contd.

The Conference calls upon Governments and peoples to exert

common efforts for the preservation and improvement of the human
environment, for the benefit of all the people and for their posterity.

Principles

1.Man has the fundamental right to freedom, equality and adequate

conditions of life, in an environment of a quality that permits a life of
dignity and well-being, and he bears a solemn responsibility to
protect and improve the environment for present and future
generations. In this respect, policies promoting or perpetuating
apartheid, racial segregation, discrimination, colonial and other
forms of oppression and foreign domination stand condemned and
must be eliminated.

Contd.

2. The natural resources of the earth, including the air, water, land,
flora and fauna and especially representative samples of natural
ecosystems, must be safeguarded for the benefit of present and
future generations through careful planning or management, as
appropriate.

Contd.

3. The capacity of the earth to produce vital renewable resources

must be maintained and, wherever practicable, restored or
improved.

Contd.

4.Man has a special responsibility to safeguard and wisely manage

the heritage of wildlife and its habitat, which are now gravely
imperilled by a combination of adverse factors. Nature conservation,
including wildlife, must therefore receive importance in planning for
economic development.

Contd.

5. The non-renewable resources of the earth must be employed in

such a way as to guard against the danger of their future exhaustion
and to ensure that benefits from such employment are shared by all
mankind.

Contd.

6. The discharge of toxic substances or of other substances and the

release of heat, in such quantities or concentrations as to exceed
the capacity of the environment to render them harmless, must be
halted in order to ensure that serious or irreversible damage is not
inflicted upon ecosystems. The just struggle of the peoples of ill
countries against pollution should be supported.

Contd.

7. States shall take all possible steps to prevent pollution of the seas
by substances that are liable to create hazards to human health, to
harm living resources and marine life, to damage amenities or to
interfere with other legitimate uses of the sea.

Contd.

8. Economic and social development is essential for ensuring a

favorable living and working environment for man and for creating
conditions on earth that are necessary for the improvement of the
quality of life.

Contd.

9. Environmental deficiencies generated by the conditions of underdevelopment and natural disasters pose grave problems and can
best be remedied by accelerated development through the transfer
of substantial quantities of financial and technological assistance as
a supplement to the domestic effort of the developing countries and
such timely assistance as may be required.

Contd.

10. For the developing countries, stability of prices and adequate

earnings for primary commodities and raw materials are essential to
environmental management, since economic factors as well as
ecological processes must be taken into account.

Contd.
environmental policies of all States should
enhance and not adversely affect the present or future
development potential of developing countries, nor
should they hamper the attainment
of better living conditions for all, and appropriate steps
should be taken by States and international
organizations with a view to reaching agreement on
meeting the possible national and international economic
consequences resulting from the application of
environmental measures.

11. The

Contd.

12. Resources

should be made available to preserve and

improve the environment, taking into account the
circumstances and particular requirements of developing
countries and any costs which may emanate- from their
incorporating environmental safeguards into their
development planning and the need for making available
to them, upon their request, additional international
technical and financial assistance for this purpose

Contd.

13. In order to achieve a more rational management of resources

and thus to improve the environment, States should adopt an
integrated and coordinated approach to their development planning
so as to ensure that development is compatible with the need to
protect and improve environment for the benefit of their population.

Contd.

14. Rational planning constitutes an essential tool for reconciling

any conflict between the needs of development and the need to
protect and improve the environment.

Contd.

15. Planning must be applied to human settlements and

urbanization with a view to avoiding adverse effects on the
environment and obtaining maximum social, economic and
environmental benefits for all. In this respect projects which arc
designed for colonialist and racist domination must be abandoned.

Contd.

16. Demographic policies which are without prejudice to basic

human rights and which are deemed appropriate by Governments
concerned should be applied in those regions where the rate of
population growth or excessive population concentrations are likely
to have adverse effects on the environment of the human
environment and impede development.

Contd.

17. Appropriate national institutions must be entrusted with the task

of planning, managing or controlling the 9 environmental resources
of States with a view to enhancing environmental quality.

Contd.

18.Science and technology, as part of their contribution to economic

and social development, must be applied to the identification,
avoidance and control of environmental risks and the solution of
environmental problems and for the common good of mankind.

Contd.

19.Education in environmental matters, for the younger generation

as well as adults, giving due consideration to the underprivileged, is
essential in order to broaden the basis for an enlightened opinion
and responsible conduct by individuals, enterprises and
communities in protecting and improving the environment in its full
human dimension. It is also essential that mass media of
communications avoid contributing to the deterioration of the
environment, but, on the contrary, disseminates information of an
educational nature on the need to project and improve the
environment in order to enable mal to develop in every respect.

Contd.

20. Scientific research and development in the context of

environmental problems, both national and multinational, must be
promoted in all countries, especially the developing countries. In this
connection, the free flow of up-to-date scientific information and
transfer of experience must be supported and assisted, to facilitate
the solution of environmental problems; environmental technologies
should be made available to developing countries on terms which
would encourage their wide dissemination without constituting an
economic burden on the developing countries.

Contd.

21. States

have, in accordance with the Charter of the

United Nations and the principles of international law, the
sovereign right to exploit their own resources pursuant to
their own environmental policies, and the responsibility
to ensure that activities within their jurisdiction or control
do not cause damage to the environment of other States
or of areas beyond the limits of national jurisdiction.

Contd.

22. States shall cooperate to develop further the international law

regarding liability and compensation for the victims of pollution and
other environmental damage caused by activities within the
jurisdiction or control of such States to areas beyond their
jurisdiction.

Contd.

23.Without prejudice to such criteria as may be agreed upon by the

international community, or to standards which will have to be
determined nationally, it will be essential in all cases to consider the
systems of values prevailing in each country, and the extent of the
applicability of standards which are valid for the most advanced
countries but which may be inappropriate and of unwarranted social
cost for the developing countries.

Contd.

24. International matters concerning the protection and

improvement of the environment should be handled in a cooperative
spirit by all countries, big and small, on an equal footing.
Cooperation through multilateral or bilateral arrangements or other
appropriate means is essential to effectively control, prevent, reduce
and eliminate adverse environmental effects resulting from activities
conducted in all spheres, in such a way that due account is taken of
the sovereignty and interests of all States.

Contd.

25. States shall ensure that international organizations play a

coordinated, efficient and dynamic role for the protection and
improvement of the environment.

26. Man and his environment must be spared the effects of nuclear
weapons and all other means of mass destruction. States must
strive to reach prompt agreement, in the relevant international
organs, on the elimination and complete destruction of such
weapons.

Emergence of env. issues

1.Climate change Global warming Global dimming Fossil fuels
Sea levelrise Greenhouse gas Oceanacidification Shutdown of
thermohaline circulation Environment impact of the coal industry
Urban Heat Islands

2. Conservation

Species extinction Pollinator decline Coral

bleaching Holocene extinction Invasive species Poaching

Endangered species

Contd.

3. Energy
Energy conservation Renewable energy Efficient
energy use Renewable energy commercialization Environmental
impact of the coal industry Environmental impact of hydrauli
fracturing

4. Environmental degradation Eutrophication Habitat

destruction Invasive species

5. Environmental health Air quality Asthma Environmental

impact of the coal industry Electromagnetic fields
Electromagnetic radiation and health Indoor air quality Lead
poisoning Sic Building Syndrome Environmental impac of
hydraulic fracturing

Contd.
6.Genetic engineering Genetic pollution Genetically modified
food controversies
7. Intensive farming Overgrazing Irrigation Monoculture
Environmental effects of meat production Slash and burn
Pesticide drift Plasticulture
8. Land degradation Land pollution Desertification

9. Soil
Soil conservation Soil erosion Soil contamination Soil
salination
10. Land use Urban sprawl Habitat fragmentation Habitat
destruction
11. Nanotechnology Nanotoxicology Nanopollution

Contd.

12. Nuclear issues

Nuclear fallout Nuclear meltdown
Nuclear power Nuclear weapons Nuclear and radiation accidents
Nuclear safety High-level radioactive waste management

13. Overpopulation
Burial Water crisis Overpopulation in
companion animals Tragedy of the commons Gender Imbalance
in Developing Countries Sub-replacement fertility levels in
developed countries
14. Ozone depletion CFC Biological effects of UV exposure
15. Pollution Environmental impact of the coal industry Nonpoint
source pollution Point source pollution Light pollution Noise
pollution Visual pollution

Contd.

16. Water pollution Environmental impact of the coal industry

Acid rain Eutrophication Marine pollution Ocean dumping Oil
spills Thermal pollution Urban runoff Water crisis Marine debris
Microplastics Ocean acidification Ship pollution Wastewater
Fish kill Algal bloom Mercury in fish Environmental impact of
hydraulic fracturing.

17. Air pollution

Environmental impact of the coal industry
Smog Tropospheric ozone Indoor air quality Volatile organic
compound Atmospheric particulate matter Environmental impact
of hydraulic fracturing

Contd.
Environmental impacts of reservoirs
19. Resource depletion Exploitation of natural resources

18. Reservoirs

Overdrafting

20. Consumerism
Consumer capitalism Planned
obsolescence Over-consumption
21. Fishing Blast fishing Bottom trawling Cyanide fishing
Ghost nets Illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing
Overfishing Shark finning Whaling
22. Logging Clearcutting Deforestation Illegal logging

Contd.

23. Mining Acid mine drainage Environmental impact of

hydraulic fracturing Mountaintop removal mining Slurry
impoundments
24. Toxins Chlorofluorocarbons DDT Endocrine disruptors
Dioxin Toxic heavy metals Environmental impact of the coal
industry Herbicides Pesticides Toxic waste PCB
Bioaccumulation Biomagnification Environmental impact of
hydraulic fracturing
25. Waste Electronic waste Litter Waste disposal incidents
Marine debris Medical waste Landfill Leachate Environmental
impact of the coal industry Incineration Great Pacific Garbage
Patch Exporting of hazardous waste Environmental impact of
hydraulic fracturing

International Protocols

1. General Assemblys Resolution of December ,1972

2.Charter of Economic rights and duties of states ,1974
3. UN-Habitat conference in human settlement of 1976 ,World water
conference of 1977 and other conferences
4.Environmental Education conference
5.World commission on environment and development
6. Earth Summit 1992
7.Earth Summit +5
8.Earth Summit 2002 Johannesburg Summit

1.General Assemblys Resolution of Dec1972

1.Stockholm conference was followed by the United Nations

General Assembly resolution on Dec 15 ,1972 emphasizing the
need of active cooperation among the states in the sphere of human
environment.
2.The resolution designated June 5 as the World Env. Day and
urged governments and organisations in the United Nations system
to undertake on that day every year worldwide activities reaffirming
their concern for the protection of environment.
3.Another resolution was passed which provided for institutional and
financial arrangements for international cooperation for
environment.
4.Amongs other decisions , provisions were made for establishing a
Governing Council for Environmental Secretariat and Environment
Fund .The Governing Council formulated long-term and short-term
plans for the protection of env. Particularly realting to development.

Contd.

5.Following the Stockholm Conference many governments all over

the world began establishing departments and agencies of
environments and ministries of environments .
6.The developing countries started setting up agencies or ministries
for the purpose expressing an equal concern about their aspirations
for economic development and wanted to ensure that their
development issues would not be affected due to environmental
issues.
7. As the world forums started addressing problems concerning
environment , differences rather than division emerged between
countries of the North (Developed) and those of the
South(Developing) .The South argued that the North had good living
standards which they attained by their consumption style leading to
damage of environment and resources.

2. Charter of Economic Rights and Duties of States , 1974

The Charter of Economic Rights and Duties of States , 1974 is a

document of UN. One of its articles states that:
The protection , preservation and the enhancement of the
environment for the present and the future generations is the
responsibility of all States .All States should cooperate in evolving
international norms and regulations in the field of environment.

3. UN-Habitat Conference on Human Settlement of 1976, World Water

Conference of 1977 and other conferences:

The international efforts directed the protection and preservation of

environment became vigorous in 1970s and the 1980s . Most
important efforts are the following :
1. UN habitat conference on Human Settlements in
VANCOUVER ,Canada in 1976.
2. World water Conference in Mardel Plata , Argentina in 1977 .The
World Water Conference caleed upon the UN to establish a
programme with a goal of providing clean drnking water and
sanitation to all.
3. The UN desertification Conference held in Nairobi in 1977.
4. Paris conference , held in 1986 called for saving trees and
forests . The conference was attended by Heads of States and
Government officials from 36 countries.

4. Environmental Education conference

In 1977 ,United Nations Environment Programme (UNDEP) and

United Nations Educational ,Scientific and Cultural
organisation(UNESCO) organised an Intergovernmental Education
Confrence at Georgia. The conference was attended by over 400
delegates from 74 countries . The UNEP Executive Director
understood that environment education was a matter of life and
death and that problems of environment were jeopardising the
development of mankind.

5.World commission on
Environment and Development

1.In 1980s , international community became seriously concerned

with increasing problems of environment.
2.Problems of Ozone depletion , climate change (global warming) ,
declining of fisheries and forest cover , loss of Biodiversity , pollution
and hazardous wastes attracted the attention at global level.
3. Issues of sustainable development became of paramount
importance especially for the developing countries.
4. Norwegian Prime Minister ,Harlem Bruntdland was appointed the
Chairman of the commission .The report of this commission called
Our common future (1987) dealt with many issues but the issue of
poverty in developing countries in relation to environmental damage
was a special focus.

Contd.

5. It stated that problems of environment could not be resolved

without poverty reduction .The commission also addressed
problems relating to inequity between rich and poor countries.
Brundtland Commissionserved as preparatory framework for Rio
conference.

6. Earth Summit 1992

1. Covened by the UN (called the United Nations Conf. on Env. and

develop. (UNCED) at Rio de Janerio in 1992.
2.An 800 page document , called Agenda 21 , was issued at the
Conference.
3.It contains comprehensive blueprint for governments on
everything from population strtegy , management of hazardous
wastes , recycling , energy conservation , renewable energy ,
business strategies to role of women in environment.
4. While the guidelines and the principles procliamed at Rio
Confrence are not legally binding , they carry a strong moral force to
ensure their adoptation.

Contd.

5. The underlying idea of Agenda -21 is that humanity has reached a

point where present policies on development and economic growth
have not been able to tackle the problems of poverty , hunger and
living conditions.They continue to cause continuing resource
depletion and deterioration of ecosystem on which life on this planet
depends.

6. If human beings have to be providedd with decent living

conditions especially in developing countries , the management of
ecosystem at local ,national and global levels have to be undertaken
on priority basis.

Contd.
Rio-Declaration: 3rd to 14th June 1992

1.Reaffirming the Declaration of the United Nations Conference on

the Human Environment , adopetd at Stockholm on 16th June ,
1972, and seeking to build upon it;
2.With the goal of establishing a new and equitable global
partnership through the creation of new levels of cooperation among
the States , key sectors of societies and people.
3. Working towards international agreements which respect the
interets of all and protect the integrity of the global environmenatl
and developmenatl system;
4.Recognising the integarl and interdependent nature of the Earth ,
our home.

Principles :

1. Human beings are at the center of concerns of sustainable

development .They are entitled to a healthy and productive life in
harmony with nature.
2. States have, in accordance with the Charter of the United Nations
and the principles of international law , the sovereign right to exploit
their own resources pursuant to their own environmental and
development policies , and the responsibility to ensure that activities
within their jurisdiction or control do not cause damage to the
environment of other states or of areas beyond the limits of national
jurisdiction.

Contd.

3. The right to development must be fulfilled as to equitably meet

development and environmental needs of the present and future
generations.

4. In order to achieve sustainable development , environmental

protection shall constitute an integral part of the development
process and cannot be considered in isolation from it.

5. All States and all people shall cooperate in the essential task of
eradicating poverty as an indispensable requirement for sustainable
development , in order to decrease the disparities in standards of
living and better meet the needs of the majority of the peole of the
world.

Contd.

6. The special situation and needs of developing countries ,

particularly the least developed and those most environmentally
vulnerable , shall be given priority .International actions in the field of
environment and development should also address the interests
and needs of all countries.

7. States shall cooperate in a spirit of global partnership to conserve

, protect and restore the health and integrity of Earths ecosystem .In
view of the different contributions to global environmental
degradation , States have common but differentiated responsibilities
.The developed countries acknowledge the responsibility that they
bear in the international pursuit of sustainable development in view
of the pressures their societies place on the global environment and
the technologies and financial resources they command.

Contd.

8. To achieve sustainable development and a highre qulaity of life

for all people , States should reduce and eliminate unsustainable
patterns of production and consumption and promote appropriate
demographic policies.

9. States should cooperate to strengthen endogenous capacity

building development by improving scientific understanding through
exchanges of scientific and technological knowledge and by
enhancing the development ,adaptation , diffusion and transfer of
technologies including new and innovative technologies.
10. Environmental issues are best handled with the participation of
all concerned citizens , at the relevant level. At the national level ,
each individual shall have appropriate access to information
concerning the environment that is held by public authorities ,

contd.

including information on hazardous materials and activities in their

communities , and the opportunity to participate in decision making
processes. States shall facilitate and encourage public awareness
and participation by making information widely available. Effective
access to judicial and administrative proceedings , including redress
and remedy , shall be provided.

11. States shall enact effective environment legislation.

Environmental standards , management objectives and priorities
should reflect the environmental and developmental context to
which they apply. Standards applied by some countries may be
inappropriate and of unwarranted economic and social cost to other
countries , in particular developing countries.

Contd.

12. States should cooperate to promote a supportive and open

economic system that would lead to economic growth and
sustainable development in all countries, to better address the
problems of environmental degradation .trade policy measures for
environmetal purposes should not constitute a means of arbitrary or
unjustifiable discrimination or a disguised restriction on international
trdae .Unilateral actions to deal with environmental challenges
outside the jurisdiction of the importing country should be avoided
.Environmental measures addressing transboundary or global
environmental problems should , as far as possible , be based on an
international consensus .

Contd.

13. States shall develop national law regarding liability and

compensation for the victims of pollution and other environmetal
damage .States shall also cooperate in an expeditious and more
determined manner to develop further international law regarding
liability and compensation for adverse effects of environmetal
damage caused by activities within their jusrisdiction or control to
areas beyond their jurisdiction.

14. Sates should effectively cooperate to discourage or prevent the

relocation and transfer to other States of any activities or
substances that cause environmental degradation or are found to be
harmful to human health.

Contd.

15. In order to protect the environment , the precautionary approach

shall be widely applied by States according to their capabilities.
Where there are threats of serious or irreversible damage , lack of
full scientific certianty shall not be used as a reason for postponing
cost-effective measures to prevent environmental degradation.

16. National authorities should endeavour to promote the

internalization of environmental costs and the use of economic
instruments , taking into account the approach that the polluter
should, in principle , bear the cost of pollution , with due regard to
the public interests and without distorting international trade and
investment.

Contd.

17. Environmental impact assessment , as a national instrument

,shall be undertaken for the proposed activities that are likely to
produce harmful effects on the environment of those Staes .Every
effort shall be made by the international community to help Staes so
afflicted.

18. States shall immediately notify other States of any natural

disaster or other emergencies that are likely to produce sudden
harmful effects on the environment of those States. Every effort shall
be made by the international community to help the states so
afflicted.

Contd.

19. States shall provide prior and timely notification and relavant
information to potentially affected Staes on activities that may have
a siginificant adverse transboundary environmental effect and
shallconsult with those States at an early stage and in good faith.

20. Women have a vital role in environment management and

development .Their full participation is therefore essential to achieve
sustainbal edevelopment.

21. The creativity , ideals and courage of the youth of the world
should be mobilized to forge a global partnership in order to achieve
sustainable development .

Contd.

22. Indigenous people and their communities and other local

communities have a vital role in environmental management and
development because of their knowledge and trdaitional practices.
States should recognize and duly support their identity , culture and
interests and enable their effcetive participation in the achievement
of sustainable developemnt.

23. The environment and the natural resources of people under

oppression , domination and occupation nshall be protected.

24. Warfare is inherently destructive of sustainable

development.Staes shall therefore respect international law
providing protection for the environment in times of armed conflict

Contd.

and cooperate in it further development , as necessary.

25. Peace , development and environmental protection are

interdependent and indivisible.

26. Staes shall resolve all their environmetal disputes peacefully

and by appropriate means in accordance with the Charter of the
United Nations.

27. States and the people shall cooperate in good faith and in a
spirit of partnership in the fulfilment of the principles embodied in
this Declaration and in the further development of international law
in the field of sustainable development.

Earth Summit +5

EARTH Summit of 1992 (Agenda 21 ) was a milestone in the

promotion of sustainble development and environment. The nations
of the world committed themselves to protect the environment and
resource conservation for sustainable development both at national
and global level .In 1997 UN convened a conference in New York to
assess the progress made in five years since the Earth Summit of
1992;this conference being called as the Earth Summit +5 .The final
document of Earth Summit +5 is a result of several rounds of
negotiations among representatives of various governments .The
highlights of Summit +5 are :
1. The governmenta acknowledged that global env. Has continued
to deterioriate sine the Earth Summit 1992 with increasing
emissions of greenhouse gases and generating of more solid
wastes.

Contd.

Also pollution and effluent treatment continue to be major problems.

2. Renewable resources like fresh water ,forests , fish continue to
be used at an unsustainable rate.
3.On the positive side it is noted that :
A.) World population is slowing down
B.) Food production is rising
C.) Life span has increased
At the same time , the number of poor is increasing and the gap
between the poor and the rich has grown both within and between
the countries.

Contd.

Earth summit +5 addressed itself the above concerns and the

participating governments took action both within and between
countries.
4. Earth Summit +5 addressed itself the above concerns and the
participating governments took action on several fronts and agreed
on the following:
1.Reconfirm the political commitment to sustainable development
from all members of the international community , as well as all
major groups of civil society.
2.Reconfirm the financial commitments and targets for official
development assistance(ODA) made by industrialized countries at
the Earth Summit , and call for intensified efforts to reverse the
downward trend in ODA;

Contd.

3. Establish an Intergovernmental Forum on Forests under the

Commission on Sustainable Development to cintinue policy
dialogue on this issue , including more focussed consideration of
elements for a possible legal instrument;
4. Open high-level Intergovernmental dialogue on fresh water , and
on energy and transport , which will be taken up by the commission
on Sustainable Development at the upcoming session.
5. Make a stronger commitment at the global level of such issues as
tourism , changing production and consumption patterns ,and ecoefficiency;
6. Set a more focussed work programme for the Commission on
Sustainable Development through the year 2002, when the next
General Assembly review will be held.

Erath Summit 2002 Johannesbur Summit

The second world summit on sustainbale development
was held in Johannesburg from August 26 to sept 4
2002:
Key outcomes of this Summit are :
1. The Summit reaffirmed sustainable development as a
central element of international agenda and gave a new
impetus to global action to protect environment and fight
poverty. It was decided to establish World Solidarity
Fund for the eradication of poverty.

Contd.

2. The linkages between poverty and environment /resource use

was re-examined to strengthen this relationship.
3.Governments agreed to reaffirm the targets and commitments for
action for better implementation of sustainable development.
4. Energy and sanitation issues became important elements of
negotiation than previous international meetings.
5. It was decided to pay special attention and support for
development of Africa.
6.Key role of Civil Society and NGOs was recognized in promising
partnership among business ,Governments and society . Many
partnerships were announced during the Summit.

WTO

Kyoto Protocol

Unit-2
Pollution and Public Policy

Water Pollution

Water pollution

Water pollution can be defined as alteration in physical ,chemical or

biological characteristics of water making it unsuitable for
designated use in its natural state.

Sources of water pollution

1. Water required for : drinking, cooking ,bathing, washing ,irrigation,

and for industrial operations.
2. Most of the water for such uses comes from rivers ,lakes , or
groundwater sources .
3. Water has the property to dissolve many substances in it,
therefore, it can easily get polluted .
4. Pollution of water can be caused by point sources or non-point
sources .Point sources are specific sites near water which directly
discharge effluents into them.
5.Major point sources of water pollution are industries, power plants,
underground coal mines , offshore oil wells etc.

Contd.

6.The discharge from non-point sources is not at any particular site ,

rather , these sources are scattered , which individually or
collectively pollute water.
7. Surface run-off from agricultural fields , overflowing small drains ,
rain water sweeping roads and fields , atmospheric deposition etc.
are the non-point sources of water pollution.

Ground water pollution

1.Ground water forms about 6.2% of the total water available on

planet earth and is about 30 times more than surface water
(streams, lakes and estuaries).
2.Less prone to pollution as the soil mantle through which water
passes helps to retain various contaminants due to its cation
exchange capacity.
3. There are , however ,a number of potential sources of ground
water pollution.
Septic tanks , industry (textile , chemical, tanneries), deep well
injection, mining etc. are mainly responsible for ground water
pollution which is irreversible.

Contd.

4. Ground water pollution with arsenic , flouride and nitrate are

posing serious health hazards.

Surface water pollution

The major sources of surface water pollution:

1. Sewage : Emptying the drains and sewers in fresh water bodies
causes water pollution .The problem is severe in cities.

2. Industrail effluents : Industrial wastes containing toxic chemicals,

acids, alkalis, metallic salts, phenols, cyanides, ammonia,
radioactive substances , etc. are sources of water pollution. They
also cause thermal (heat) pollution of water.
3.Synthetic detergents :Synthetic detergents used in washing and
cleaning produce foam and pollute water.
4. Agrochemicals: Agrochemicals like fertilizers (containing nitrtaes
and phosphates ) and pesticides (insecticides ,fungicides
,herbicides etc.) washed by rain-water and surface run-off pollute
water.

Contd.

5. Oil: Oil spillage into sea-water during and shipment polluet it.

6. Waste heat: Waste heat from industrial discharges increases the

temperature of water bodies and affects distribution and survival of
sensitive species.

Effects of water pollution

1.Oxygen demanding wastes

2. Nitrogen and Phosphorous compounds
3. Pathogens
4. Toxic compounds

Contd.

Organic matter which reaches water bodies is decomposed by

microorganisms present in water .For this degradation oxygen
dissolved in water is consumed.Lower dissolved oxygen (DO) is
harmful to animals especially fish population .

2. Nitrogen and Phosphorous compouds (nutrients) Addition of

compounds containing nitrogen and phosphorous helps in the
growth of algae and other plants which when die and decay
consume oxygen of water. Under anaerobic conditions foul smelling
gases are produced.

3. Pathogens : Many wastewaters especially sewage contain many

pathogenic (disease causing) and non-pathogenic micro-organisms
and many viruses.

Contd.
4.Toxic compounds : Pollutants such as heavy metals , pesticides
,cyanides and many other organic and inorganic componds are
harmful to aquatic organisms.

Control of water pollution

It is easy to reduce water pollution from point sources by legislation.

However, due to absence of defined strategies it becomes difficult to
prevent water pollution from non-point sources.
The following points may help in reducing water pollution from nonpoint sources:
1. Judicious use of agrochemicals like pesticides and fertilisers
which will produce their surface run-off and leaching. Avoid use of
these on sloped lands.
2.Use of nitrogen fixing plants to supplement the use of fertilizers.

Contd.

3. Adopting integrated pest management to reduce reliance on

pesticides.

4. Prevent run-off of manure .Divert such run-off to basin for

settlement .The nutrient rich water can be used as fertilizer in the
fields.

5. Separate drainage of sewage and rain water should be provided

to prevent overflow of sewage with rainwater.

6. Planting trees would reduce pollution by sediments and will also

prevent soil erosion.

Contd.

For controlling water pollution from point sources , treatment of

wastewaters is essential before being discharged .

Water resources of India

1.The composition of municipal waste water varies from place to

place .Sometimes industrial wastes also mix with sewage.
Treatment of this kind of wastewater depends upon the
characteristics and the desired quality of water.

2.The wastewater treatment plants are generally primary ,seondary

or advanced.

3. The purpose of waste water treatment plant is to remove /reduce

organic and inorganic substances, nutrients , toxic substances , kill
pathogenic organism etc. so that the quality of water is improved to
meet the permissible level of water to be discharged in some water
body , on land or agricultural field.

Contd.
Treatment of water aims at :
1.reduction of BOD,COD,eutrophication of receiving
bodies
2. prevention of bio-magnification of toxic substances in
food chains and prevention of disease due to pathogenic
organisms present in water.

Steps involved in the treatment of

water:

1.Primary treatment
2.Secondary treatment
2(a.). Trickling filters
(b.).Activated sludge process
(c.).Rotating Biological Contractor
(d.).Advanced sewage treatment
(e.).Upflow anaerobic sludge reactor(USAB)

1.Primary treatment

1. It is physical process for removal of debris , large particles with

the help of a screen.The waste water after screening is passed
through the grit chamber where sand , grit and other solids settle
down.The water is then passed through sedimentation tank or
clarifier where most of the suspended solids settle down due to
gravity .For better removal of suspended solids ,sometimes
chemically treated polymers are used. About 35% BOD and 60% of
suspended solids are removed during the primary treatment.

2. Secondary treatment
It is a bological process which involves
microorganisms ,It removes upto 90% of the BOD and
90% of suspended solids .Biodegradable oxygen
demanding wastes are stabilized .Following are the
various approaches adopted in secondary treatment :

2(a.). Trickling filters

(b.).Activated sludge process
(c.).Rotating Biological Contractor
(d.).Advanced sewage treatment
(e.).Upflow anaerobic sludge reactor(USAB)

Contd.
A.)Trickling filters : These consist of a bed of crushed
stones /pebbles covered with slime which consists
mainly of aerobic bacteria , algae , fungi , protozoa ,
worms, and insect larvae. Sewage is degraded by the
aerobic bacteria when it passes through the bed and is
collected at the bottom of the filter. Some of the treated
sewage may be recirculated along the influent. It helps
in better removal of organic matter and also keeps the
filter moist when the flow rate over the filter is slow.

B.Activated Sludge process

He effluent from the primary clarifier goes to the aeration
tank .Aeration tank also receives microorganisms from
the secondary settling tank known as the activated
sludge. Oxygen is pumped into aeration tank for
maintaing aerobic conditions .A fter a fw hours of
agitation , the waste water goes to secondary settling
tank where solids settle at the bottom.Th esldge is
produced , dewatered and disposed off .This can be
used for landfills or disposed off in ocean or used in
croplands , pastures etc.

C. Rotating Biological Contractor

(RBC)
It consists of circular plastic discs which are arranged on
a rotating shaft. Circular discs have microorganisms
grown on tem. The discs are contained in a wastewater
holding tank. About 40% area of the discs is submerged
in the tank. The discs rotate in and out of water as the
RBC rotates .The microorganisms present on the discs
absorb organic matter when they are in water and obtain
the required oxygen when the discs are out of water.
Thus a high degree of organic matter removal is
achieved.

D. Advanced sewage Treatment

After the primary and secondary treatment many
undesirable substances still remain in the effluent.
Advanced water treatment involves the removal of such
substances .the treatment , therefore, involves specific
steps depending upon the type of substances to be
removed.
The materials to be removed in such treatmnet may
include nitrates and phosphates (which cause
eutrophication of receiving waters) , colour, bacteria ,
viruses , pesticides , toxic metals ,etc.

Contd.

Chlorination of water is generally done to kill harmful bacteria and

some viruses .However, chlorine can produce cancer causing
chlorinated hydrocarbons by reacting with organic matter. Other, but
costly methods of disinfection are the use of ultraviolet light and
ozone treatment. The sludge produced after such treatment is used
as a fertilizer in the fields .However, there are chances of toxic
metals and other untreated substances to build up in the food chain
or leach to the groundwater.

Upflow Anaerobic sludge (USAB)Reactor

Anaerobic treatment is gaining importance as a method
of wastewater treatment due to its effectiveness in
treating wastewater and economic advantages. The
USAB process consists of four stages of anaerobic
digestion :
1. hydrolysis
2. acidogenesis
3. acetogenesis
4. methanogenesis

Contd.
A dense blanket of granular anaerobic biomass is used
to conver organic compounds that are passed through
the sludge blanket continuously. Biogas produced is
collected at the top of the reactor. The wastewater to be
treated is fed into the reactor at the bottom.As the
influent flows through the loops And enters the reactor
chamber , hydrolisis occurs .This process converts the
influent into H2 ,co2, ch4,acetate , new cell-matter etc.
COD removal of up to 80% is achieved .Methane and
co2 are separated from the reactor.

Hydrological cycle

This cycle involves the continuous circulation of water in the Earthatmosphere system. Of the many processes involved in the
hydrologic cycle, the most important are evaporation, transpiration,
condensation, precipitation, and runoff. Although the total amount of
water within the cycle remains essentially constant, its distribution
among the various processes is continually changing.

Contd.

1.Evaporation, one of the major processes in the cycle, is the

transfer of water from the surface of the Earth to the atmosphere. By
evaporation, water in the liquid state is transferred to the gaseous,
or vapour, state. This transfer occurs when some molecules in a
water mass have attained sufficient kinetic energy to eject
themselves from the water surface.

Contd.

A.) The main factors affecting evaporation are temperature,

humidity, wind speed, and solar radiation. The direct measurement
of evaporation, though desirable, is difficult and possible only at
point locations.
B.) The principal source of water vapour is the oceans, but
evaporation also occurs in soils, snow, and ice. Evaporation from
snow and ice, the direct conversion from solid to vapour, is known
as sublimation.
C.) Transpiration is the evaporation of water through minute pores,
or stomata, in the leaves of plants. For practical purposes,
transpiration and the evaporation from all water, soils, snow, ice,
vegetation, and other surfaces are lumped together and called
evapotranspiration, or total evaporation.

Contd.

D.) Water vapor is the primary form of atmospheric moisture.

Although its storage in the atmosphere is comparatively small, water
vapour is extremely important in forming the moisture supply for
dew, frost, fog, clouds, and precipitation. Practically all water vapour
in the atmosphere is confined to the troposphere (the region below 6
to 8 miles [10 to 13 km] altitude).
E.) The transition process from the vapour state to the liquid state is
called condensation. Condensation may take place as soon as the
air contains more water vapour than it can receive from a free water
surface through evaporation at the prevailing temperature.

Contd.

This condition occurs as the consequence of either cooling or the

mixing of air masses of different temperatures. By condensation,
water vapour in the atmosphere is released to form precipitation.

F.) Precipitation that falls to the Earth is distributed in four main

ways: some is returned to the atmosphere by evaporation, some
may be intercepted by vegetation and then evaporated from the
surface of leaves, some percolates into the soil by infiltration, and
the remainder flows directly as surface runoff into the sea.

Contd.

Some of the infiltrated precipitation may later percolate into streams

asgroundwater runoff. Direct measurement of runoff is made by
stream gauges and plotted against time on hydrographs.
G.) Most groundwater is derived from precipitation that has
percolated through the soil. Groundwater flow rates, compared with
those of surface water, are very slow and variable, ranging from a
few millimetres to a few metres a day. Groundwater movement is
studied by tracer techniques and remote sensing.

Contd.

Ice also plays a role in the hydrologic cycle. Ice and snow on the
Earths surface occur in various forms such as frost, sea ice, and
glacier ice. When soil moisture freezes, ice also occurs beneath the
Earths surface, forming permafrost in tundra climates. About 18,000
years ago glaciers and ice caps covered approximately one-third of
the Earths land surface. Today about 12 percent of the land surface
remains covered by ice masses.

River Action plan