TOEFL: Structure and Written

Expression

General Strategies
Be familiar with the directions.
Begin with questions 1-15 (Structure). Questions
1-5 are easier and 11-15 are harder.
Continue with questions 16-40 (Written
Expression). Questions 16-20 are easier and 3640 are harder.
Do not take too much time with each item. If you
have time left you can go back and check 11-15
and 36-40.
Do not leave any blank answers on the answer
sheet.

Strategies for Structure Questions

First, study the sentence.
Then study each answer choice based on how well it
completes the sentence.
Do not try to eliminate incorrect options by looking only
at the answers.
Be aware that in this section most of the items will
require you to identify the subject or the verb (or both) in
the correct order of subject + verb (except on items with
inverted structure).
Do not spend too much time on this section. Leave
enough time for the Written Expression Section.

Characteristics of a Sentence
A sentence can be formed by one or more clauses.
Clauses can be independent and dependent/subordinate
clauses. All sentences must have subject and verb.
Sentences can be: simple, compound, complex, and
compound-complex.
A simple sentence is formed by only one independent
clause.
I went to the movies yesterday afternoon.
Independent clause

A compound sentence is formed by two or more independent

clauses connected by coordinate conjunctions (for, and, nor,
but, or, yet, so: FANBOYS).
I went to the movies last night, and I had a great time.
Independent clause

conjunction + Ind. clause

A complex sentence is formed by one independent clause and

one or more dependent clauses.
I went to the movies after I had finished my homework.
Independent Clause

connector + Dependent Clause

A compound-complex sentence is formed by more than one

independent clause and at least one dependent clause.
I went to the movies, and I had a great time because the movie
Indep. Clause

was terrific.

conj. +

Indep. Clause +

connector + Dep. Cl.

Characteristics of a Clause
Every clause must have a subject and a verb. A
complement is optional.
There are two types of clauses: independent and
dependent (or subordinated).
Independent clauses have a complete idea and
can stand alone in a sentence.
Dependent clauses complement the
independent clause, but do not have a complete
idea and cannot stand alone in a sentence.

 There are three types of dependent clauses:

Noun clauses: function as a noun, so they can be
subjects, objects of a verb, or objects of a preposition.
I understand how you feel.
Adjective clauses: function as an adjective and
describe a noun or pronoun from the main clause.
I know the man who works in that office.
Adverb clauses: function as an adverb and give
additional information about the verb (how, when, where,
and why)
I know that man because he works with my father.
Note: We will see these in more detail in the skills.

Skills 1-5
Simple Sentences: one subject + one verb
SKILL 1: BE SURE THE SENTENCE HAS A SUBJECT AND A VERB:

Engineers are needed for work.

S

The boy will be going to the movies.

S

SKILL 2: BE CAREFUL OF OBJECTS OF PREPOSITIONS:

In the past a woman in politics wasnt common.

OP

OP

For the fever he took aspirine tablets.

OP

SKILL 3: BE CAREFUL OF APPOSITIVES

An appositive is a noun or noun phrase which describes

another noun or pronoun. It is normally set off by commas.
Tom, a good mechanic, is fixing a car.
S

APP

A good mechanic, Tom is fixing a car.

APP

A good mechanic, Tom, is fixing a car.

S

APP

IT AND THERE
Strategy
Some sentences or clauses begin with it or there. Be aware of the
constructions that follow these subjects. In the Structure section, parts
of a sentence including it and there may be omitted.

A sentence or clause may begin with the words it or there.

1) It is used in three ways:
It is used as subject followed by the verb to be:
It was in 1761 that she came to Boston. (It + to be + that)
It is used as subject when the information is related to an
adjective:
It was important to be free. (It + to be + adjective + infinitive)
It is used as a subject when it is used with a time phrase:
It took her a few years to learn English. (It + take + time
phrase + infinitive)

2) There shows that something or someone exists at a special time or

place. In this use, the word there follows this construction:
there + to be + subject
There are many books about Phyllis Wheatley today.
There was a big storm yesterday.
In these clauses the verb to be and the subject must agree on person.
Expletive:
Function: noun
1 a : a syllable, word, or phrase inserted to fill a vacancy (as in a
sentence or a metrical line) without adding to the sense;
especially : a word (as it in "make it clear which you prefer") that
occupies the position of the subject or object of a verb in normal
English word order and anticipates a subsequent word or phrase
that supplies the needed meaningful content.
Source: Merriam Webster Online Dictionary: http://www.m-w.com/

SKILL 4: BE CAREFUL OF PRESENT PARTICIPLES (Adjectives):

Do not confuse them with present progressive:
The boy is standing in the corner.
S

The boy standing in the corner looks suspicious.

S

Adjective

The present participle works as an adjective:

Tip: If it does not have a form of be, it is not a verb.

SKILL 5: BE CAREFUL OF PAST PARTICIPLES

Do not confuse them with the following:

1.
2.
3.

Simple past: She painted the picture.

Present/Past Perfect: She has/had painted the picture.
Passive Voice: The picture was painted by Karen.

The past participle works as an adjective:

The picture painted looks wonderful.
S

Adjective

Tip: If it does not have a form of be or have, it is not a verb.

Skills 6-8: Sentences with Multiple clauses:

1) Compound sentences: A compound sentence is a
sentence with two or more main or independent clauses that
can be connected with coordinating conjuctions: (acronym:
FANBOYS):
for

and

nor

but

or

yet

so

These sentences normally have a comma before the

conjunction/connector.

Ana laughed, but she wanted to cry.

s
v
con. s
v
The TOEFL exam will be difficult, so we must study hard.
s
v
con. s
v
The weather was great, and the sun was shining.
s
v
con.
s
v

2) Complex Sentences: A complex sentence is one that has a

main or independent clause and a subordinated clause.

Adverb Clauses: These clauses give information about the verb
in the independent clause:
Time:
Cause
after because
assince
as long as
now that
before inasmuch as
as soon as
when
while
since
until
etc.

Condition
If
In case
provided
providing
unless
whether

Contrast
although
even though
though
while
whereas

Manner
as
in that

Place
where
wherever

Teresita went inside because it was raining.

Subject verb

con.

Subj. verb

I am going to go to the movies as soon as I finish my TOEFL

Sub. verb

con.

Subj. verb

exercises.
Although there is a lot of information to learn for the TOEFL
Con.

Subj.

verb

exam, you can get the 600 points if you work hard.
Subj. Verb

con. Subj. verb

SKILLS 9-12: Noun and Adjective

Clauses

Noun clauses: They are the second type of subordinated clauses. They

Noun clauses as any other clause have the normal order of

Subject + Verb. Noun clauses you have used before:

work as nouns, so they can be subjects, objects of a verb, or objects of

a preposition.

Indirect/embedded/polite questions:
Where is the bank?
Could you tell me where the bank is?
Does he work here?
Do you know if he works here?

Noun clauses answer the question What? and can be substituted

by it.

SKILL 9: USE NOUN CLAUSE CONNECTORS CORRECTLY

Noun connectors: what, when, where, why, how, whatever,
whenever, whether, if, that.
As object of the verb: What do you know?
I know what you did.
S V

con.

S V

As object of a preposition: What are you concerned about?

I am concerned about when he will arrive.
S V

Prep.

As subject of the sentence: What is not important?

Con.

When he will arrive is not important.

Subject

SKILL 10: USE NOUN CLAUSE

CONNECTOR/SUBJECTS CORRECTLY
Who, whoever, what, whatever, which, whichever: Can be
connectors and subjects of the clause at the same time.
1. As object of the verb: What do you know?
I know what happened.
S V

C/S

2. As subject of the sentence: What was great?

What happened was great
C /S

3. As subject of all the sentence: What was wrong?

C

S V

Subject

What you did was wrong

Verb

 Adjective clauses: These are the third type of dependent or subordinate clause.
They have the same function as an adjective: describe a noun (person, place,
thing).
This is the book which I bought yesterday.
Describes the book.
The man who is standing over there helped me.
Describes the man
Adjective clauses, like all other clauses, need to have at least a subject and a verb.
Adjective clauses go immediately after the noun they are describing, so they can
appear in the middle or end of the sentence.

Adjective connectors: Who (people), whom (people/object and

after prepositions), which (things), that (people or things, but
cannot be used after prepositions or when the adjective clause
is between commas), where (places), whose (possessive).
I liked the book which you recommended.
S V

The man who you recommended was hired yesterday.

S

Who (people), which (things) that (people or things): Can be

connector and subject of the clause at the same time.
She needs a secretary who can type fast
S

C/S

A secretary who can type fast is invaluable

S

C/S

Skills 13-14: Reduced Clauses

1) Adjective Clauses: Only adjective clauses where the connector
works as subject of the clause can be reduced.

Clauses with a be form: Omit the connector and the form of

be:
The girl (that is) sitting over there is my sister.
The car (which was) bought by my father is a racing car.
The house (that is) on sale is very old.

Clauses with no form of be: Omit the connector and change

the main verb to -ing form.
I dont understand the article (which appears) in todays
paper.
I dont understand the article appearing in todays paper.

Adjective Clauses separated by commas

If the original adjective clause was separated by commas the

reduced clause keeps the commas:

The homework, which was given by the math teacher, is due

tomorrow.
The homework, given by the math teacher, is due tomorrow.

We can also change the position of the adjective clause and put it at
the beginning of the sentence.

The president, (who is) now preparing to give a speech, is meeting with
his advisors.
Now preparing to give a speech, the president is meeting with his
advisors.

2) Adverb Clauses: Only adverb clauses that have the same

subject as the main clause can be reduced.
Clauses with a form of be : Keep the connector and omit the
subject and the form of be of the adverb clause.
Although he is rather unwell, the speaker will take part in the
seminar.
Although rather unwell, the speaker will take part in the seminar.

Clauses with no form of be:

Keep the connector, omit the subject and change the main verb
to -ing form.
Although he feels rather sick, the speaker will take part in the
seminar.
Although feeling rather sick, the speaker will take part in the
seminar.

Some adverb clauses can only be reduced if they are in passive

voice. For example, with adverb clauses with once can only be
reduced if the verb is in passive voice:

Cannot be reduced:
Once you arrive, you can start the exam.
Can be reduced:
Once the exercises are answered, they are checked by the
teacher.
Once answered, the exercises are checked by the teacher.
Adverb clauses of cause cannot be reduced:
as, because, inasmuch as, now that, since

Skills 15-19: Subject and verb inverted

1) In questions the normal order of subject and verb/aux. is
inverted:
Yes/No questions:
With verb to be
With other verbs:
Information questions:
With verb to be
With other verbs:

Are you a teacher?

V
S
Did you go to the beach?
Aux. S V
Where are you?
QW V S
What did you do?
QW A S V

2) Subject and Verb inverted after place expressions: When we

have place words or expressions at the beginning of a clause
we have to invert the normal order of subject + verb.
With verb to be: Here is the book you lent me.
V S
Around the corner is Sams house.
V S
With other verbs:
Nowhere have I seen such beautiful weather.
A S V
In the closet are the clothes that you need.
V
S

The inversion of subject + verb with place expressions is only

necessary when the expression is essential to complete the
sentence.
Necessary: In the forest are many exotic birds.
V

Not necessary: In the forest, I walked for many hours.

S

3) Invert subject + verb with negatives or almost negative words:

The subject and verb are also inverted after certain negatives
and related expressions: no, not, never, neither, nor, barely,
hardly, only, rarely, scarcely, seldom
With verb to be: Rarely were they so happy.
V

With other verbs:

Not only did he pass, he got a 100.

A

4) Invert the subject with conditionals (Implied Conditionals). In

certain conditional structures, the subject and the verb may
also be inverted.
When the conditional clause has: Had, should or were
Should + S + V base form: (First Conditional)
If I should finish early, Ill help you.
Should I finish early, Ill help you.
Were + S: (Second Conditional)
If he were here, he would help.
Were he here, he would help.
Had + S + V base form: (Third Conditional)
If you had studied more, you wouldve passed.
Had you studied more, you wouldve passed.

5) The inversion with comparatives is optional and it can be used

in formal writing.
All of these forms are correct:
My sister spends more hours in the office than John.
My sister spends more hours in the office than John does.
INVERSION: COMPARATIVE + Aux/V + S
My sister spends more hours in the office than does John.
We were more prepared than the other performers.
We were more prepared than the other performers were.
INVERSION: COMPARATIVE + Aux/V + S
We were more prepared than were the other performers.

General Strategies for Written

Expression
First, look at the underlined word or
groups of words to see if you can identify
an incorrect form or structure.
Then, read all the sentence to verify the
correct form and structure of the four
answer choices. Some underlined options
are incorrect because of something in
another part of the sentence.
Never leave any answers blank.

Skills 20-23 Subject-Verb Agreement

1) Be careful with: prepositional phrases

If the subject is singular the verb is singular:

The key to the doors IS in the drawer.
Ob.Prep.

If the Subject is plural the verb is plural:

The keys to the doors ARE in the drawer.
Ob.Prep.

2) Make verbs agree after expressions of quantity:

all/most/some/half of the.
Singular count noun:
All of the book was interesting
Plural count noun
All of the books were interesting
Non-count nouns
All of the information was
interesting.
3) When we have structures where we have to invert the normal
order of subject + verb we have to be careful to make the verb
agree with the subject. Remember this inversion is applied in
questions, after expressions of place, after negative or almost
negative words, in conditional clauses without if, and after
comparisons. After these structures the order is:
With verb to be: verb + subject
With other verbs: aux. + subject + verb

Never is she late to class.

Should Mary eat candy, she must brush her teeth.
In the first drawer is the book you are looking for.
How many times have your parents warned you to be careful?
4) After indefinite pronouns: everybody, nothing, somewhere,
etc., the verb or auxiliary are used in singular form:
Everybody was ready for the exam.
Does someone know the answer?

Skills 24-26: Parallel Structure

Parallel Structure means to make the language as even
and balanced as possible.
Example:
(not balanced: wrong)
I like to sing and dancing.
(balanced, correct)
I like to sing and dance.
or
I like singing and dancing.

1) Parallel Structure with coordinate conjuctions: and, but, and or.

They are not interested in what you say or what you do.
clause

clause

You can decide whether to go hiking or kayaking

gerund

gerund

I like to go home early, but my friends prefer to stay late.

Independent clause

Independent clause

2) With paired Conjuctions

bothand: I know both where you went and what you did.
eitheror: The report you are looking for could be either in the
file or on the desk.
neithernor: The tickets are neither in my pocket nor in my
purse.
Not only. but also
He is not only an excellent student but also a great athlete.

 Parallel structures with comparisons

more..than
less.than
-er.. than
as.as
the same as
similar to
My school is farther than yours.
To be rich is better than not to be.
What is spoken is more easily
understood than what is
written.
Their car is as big as yours.
This book costs about the same as the
other book.
The work that I did is similiar to yours.
English is less difficult than Spanish.
Some helpful hints on how to revise sentences for parallel structure: *
1) Figure out what parts of the sentence are being compared.
2) Decide whether they are parallel, i.e. arranged or constructed in the same way.
3) If they are not, make them parallel by making the grammatical construction the same in
each part.
* Source: http://www.evergreen.edu/writingcenter/handouts/grammar/parallel.pdf

Skill 27-29: Form Comparatives and

Superlatives Correctly

Comparative: We compare two persons or things.

1) Add er to one syllable words: harder, darker, faster.
2) Double the consonant and add er to one syllable words with
v+c: bigger, hotter.
3) Change y to i and add er to words with two syllables that
end in y: happier, easier.
4) Use more/less before words with two or more syllables: more
beautiful, more intelligent.
5) Add than after the comparative if you specify the second
person or object you are comparing:
Peter is taller than Joe.

Superlative: We compare more than two persons or things.

(add the before the adjective)
1) Add est to one syllable words: the hardest, the darkest, the
fastest.
2) Double the consonant and add est to one syllable words with
v+c: the biggest, the hottest.
3) Change y to i and add est to words with two syllables that
end in y: the happiest, the easiest.
4) Use the most/least before words with two or more syllables: the
most beautiful, the most intelligent.
5) We can also use the words in, of and that after the
superlative forms:
Youre the most beautiful girl in the world.
Yourre the most beautiful of all the girls in the group.
Youre the most beautiful girl that I have ever seen.

 Use Comparatives and Superlatives Correctly.

Wrong: It is the better sports car that Ive seen.
Right: It is the best sports car that Ive seen.
Use the Irregular er, -er Structure Correctly: Two parrallel
comparatives introduced by the:
The more you read, the more you learn.
The harder you try, the more youll accomplish.
Sometimes a verb is not necessary:
The greater the experience, the higher the salary.
The rules to form the comparative of adverbs are similar to
adjectives except with two syllable adverbs that end in y. The
comparative is formed with more/less, the most/least: more
easily.
The comparative of nouns is formed only adding: more/less, the
most/least: more work, the most work.

Skills 30-32: Problems with the Form of the

Verb
Base form: No person, tense, or number.
play
work
sing
come
Present form: With tense, person and number.
play(s)
work(s)
sing(s)
come(s)
Present participle: Verb + -ing. Use in prog. tenses.
playing working
singing
coming
Past form: Used with the Simple Past
played
worked
sang
came
Past Participle: Used with Perfect tenses and
Passive Voice.
played
worked
sung
come

Always check what comes:

After any form of have: have, has, had, having we should use the past
participle form of the verb:
Peter has worked a lot this week.
My parents have bought a new car.
I had finished my homework by 10 p.m.
Having finished my homework, I went out.
You should have studied a little more.

After any form of be: am, is, are, was, were, be, been, being the verb
can be in:
Present participle: for progressive tenses:
I am playing.
He is playing.
I was playing.
We were playing.
I have been playing.
I had been playing.

Tip: The subject does the action.

2) Past participle: for the passive voice:

I am checked by the doctor every year.
The water is bought every day.
The mail has been delivered on time.
The movie will be filmed in Mexico.
Tip: The subject receives the action.

After modals or modal like expressions use the base form of the
verb: can, could, shall, should, will, would, must, ought to, be
able to, be supposed to, have to, had better.
You can work with us.
He should study a lot more.
They must finish the project.
I would help you, If I had time.

SKILL 33: KNOW WHEN TO USE THE PAST

WITH THE PRESENT

If you see a sentence with one verb in the past and one verb in
the present, the sentence is probably incorrect because it doesnt
make any sense:
I tell him the truth when he asked me the question.

However, it is possible for a correct sentence to

have both past and present together and be
correct because the meaning is logical.
I understand that you were angry

SKILL 34: USE HAVE AND HAD CORRECTLY

TENSE

FORM

MEANING

USE

EXAMPLE

Present
perfect

Have + Past
Participle

Past up to
now

Not with a
past tense **

Sue has lived in L.A. for

10 years.

Past
perfect

Had + Past
Participle

Before
past up to
past

Not with a
present
tense

Sue had lived in L.A. for

10 years when she
moved to San Diego

**Except when the time expression since is part of the sentence, see skill 35.

SKILL 35: USE THE CORRECT TENSE WITH

TIME EXPRESSIONS
PAST PERFECT

SIMPLE PAST

PRESENT PERFECT

Adverb clause simple

past tense: when, before,
until, since, etc.

in 1990, ago, last

year, yesterday,

since 1990, for already,

lately, just, yet, recently, so
far, many times, ever,
never, still

SKILL 36: USE THE CORRECT TENSE WITH

WILL AND WOULD
VERB MEANING

USE

EXAMPLE

Will

After the
present

Do not use
with past

I think that I will leave

tomorrow

Would

After the
past

Do not use He knew that she would

with present come

NOTE: When would is used to make polite requests, it is used with the present tense:
I would like to have a cup of coffee please.

SKILL 37- 38: USE THE CORRECT FORM OF

THE PASSIVE

Active Voice: The subject does the action.

The man bought the books.
Subject

Verb

Object

Passive Voice: The subject receives the action:

The books were bought by the man.
Subject

verb

Agent

The passive voice is formed by:

Be (takes the tense) + Verb in past participle
Present:

am/is/are

bought

Pres.Prog.
Pres.Perf.
Past.
Past Prog.
Past Perf.
Future
Future Perf.

am/is/are being
have/has been
was/were
was/were being
had been
will be
will have been

bought
bought
bought
bought
bought
bought
bought

SKILL 39:

USE THE CORRECT SINGULAR OR

PLURAL NOUN

A singular noun is used where a plural noun is needed.

On the table there were many dish.
A plural noun is used where a singular noun is needed.
The lab assistant finished every tests.

KEY WORDS FOR SINGULAR AND PLURAL NOUNS

For singular nouns

Each every single one a

For plural nouns

Both two many several various

Skill 40: Distinguish countable and uncountable

nouns
Some common mistakes:
He has seen much* foreign films.
He didnt have many* fun at the movies.
It should be:
He has seen many foreign films.
He didnt have much fun at the movies.

Key words for countable and uncountable nouns

For countable nouns
For uncountable nouns

many number few fewer

much

amount

little

less

Skill 41: Recognize Irregular Plurals of

Nouns
Many nouns in English have irregular plurals; the irregular forms that are the
most problematic are plural forms that do not end in S.

Different Criteria was* used to evaluate the performers

In this example the plural criteria looks singular because it does not end in S.
However, criteria is a plural noun, so the singular verb was used is incorrect.
The verb should be in the plural form were used.

IRREGULAR PLURALS
Vowel Change

Man / Men
Woman / Women

Add EN

Child / Children

Same as Singular

Deer / Deer
Fish / Fish

-IS -ES

Analysis / Analyses
Diagnosis / Diagnoses
Synthesis/Syntheses
Axis / Axes
Hypothesis / Hypotheses Thesis / Theses
Crisis / Crises
Parenthesis / Parentheses

Ends in A

Bacterium / Bacteria
Criteria
Curriculum / Curricula

-US -I

Foot / Feet
Tooth / Teeth

Goose / Geese
Mouse / Mice

Ox / Oxen
Salmon / Salmon
Sheep / Sheep

Alumnus / Alumni
Bacillus / Bacilli
Cactus / Cacti

Trout / Trout

Datum / Data

Criterion /

Phenomenon / Phenomena

Fungus / Fungi
Nucleus / Nuclei
Radius / Radii

Stimulus / Stimuli
Syllabus / Syllabi

Skill 42: Distinguish The Person From

The Thing
Nouns in English can refer to persons or things; sometimes in the written
expression the person is used in place of the thing, or the thing is used in
place of the person.

Ralph Nader is an authorization* in the field of consumer affairs

There are many job oppotunities in accountant*

In the first example, autorization is incorrect because authorization is a

thing and Ralph Nader is a person; it should be authority.
In the second example, accountant is incorrect because accountant is a
person; it should be accounting.

Skill 43: DISTINGUISH SUBJECT AND OBJECT PRONOUNS

A subject pronoun is used as the subject of the verb
An object pronoun can be used as the object of a verb or the
object of a preposition

SUBJECT

OBJECT

I
You
He
She
It
We
They

Me
You
Him
Her
It
Us
Them

Sally gave the book to John.

She gave it to him.

SKILL 44: DISTINGUISH POSSESIVE

ADJECTIVES AND PRONOUNS
Possessive adjectives and pronouns both show who or
what owns a noun.
Adjectives and possessive pronouns do not have the
same function.
A possessive adjective describes a noun, it must be
accompanied by a noun
A possessive pronoun takes the place of a noun, it cant
be accompanied by a noun
They lent me their book.
They lent me theirs.

The following chart outlines the possessives and their

uses:

POSSESSIVE
ADJECTIVES

POSSESSIVE
PRONOUNS

My
Your
His
Her
Its
Our
Their

Mine
Yours
His
Hers
Ours
Theirs

Must be accompanied by
noun

Cannot be accompanied
by a noun

Skill 45: CHECK PRONOUN REFERENCE FOR

AGREEMENT
After we check that the subject and object pronouns and the
possessives are used correctly, we should also check each of
these pronouns and possessives for agreement.
The boy will cause trouble if you let him.
Everyone must give his/her* name.

PRONOUN AGREEMENT
1.
Be sure that every pronoun and possessive agrees with the
noun it refers to.
2.
You generally check back in the sentence for agreement
*In informal speaking we can use their/them

SKILL 46: USE BASIC ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS

CORRECTLY
Adjectives are used in place of adverbs, or adverbs are used in place of
adjectives. Adjectives and adverbs have very different uses. Adjectives
have only one job: they describe nouns or pronouns. Adverbs describe
verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs.
She is a beautiful woman.
ADJ.

She is beautiful.

NOUN

PRO.

She sings beautifully.

VERB

ADV.

She is a beautifully dressed woman.

ADV.

ADJ.

NOUN

She is a truly beautifully dressed woman.

ADV.

ADV.

ADJ.

NOUN

ADJ.

Skill 47: Use Adjectives after Linking Verbs

Generally an adverb rather than an adjective will come directly

after a verb because the adverb is describing the verb.
She spoke nicely.
VERB

ADV.

This adverb (nicely) describes the verb spoke.

You must be careful if the verb is a linking verb. A linking verb

is followed by an adjective rather than an adverb. A linking verb is
a non-action (describes a state) verb that needs a complement.
Examples:
LINKING VERBS:

She looks nice.

SUB.
ADJ.
appear
become

feel
prove

seem
taste

be

look

smell

SKILL 48. POSITION ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS CORRECTLY

THE POSITION OF ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS
ADJECTIVES

A one-word adjective comes before the noun it describes, it does not come
directly after.

ADVERBS

An adverb can appear in many positions. It cannot be used between a verb

and its object.

Adjectives and adverbs can appear in incorrect positions in the Written

Expression Section.
The two common errors are:
- The position of adjectives with the nouns they describe.
- The position of adverbs with objects.
In English it is correct to place a one-word adjective in front of the noun it
describes.
The information important is on the first page.
Here the adjective important should come before the noun information,
this is because important describes information.
The important information is on the first page.

 You should be aware of the position of adverbs with objects of verbs.

when a verb has an object, an adverb describing the verb should not come
between the verb and its object.
He has taken recently an English course.
Verb Adv. Object
There are many possible corrections for this sentence.
Recently he has taken an English course
He has recently taken an English course
He has taken an English course recently.

SKILL 49: Do not confuse ly Adjectives with

Adverbs ending in ly

-LY ADJECTIVES
costly

likely

daily

quarterly

northerly

early

lively

hourly

weekly

easterly

friendly

lonely

monthly

yearly

southerly

kindly

manly

nightly

lovely

westerly

SKILL 50: USE PREDICATE ADJECTIVES

AFTER LINKING VERBS
The snake on the rock was alive. CORRECT
The alive* snake was lying on the rock. INCORRECT

In the first example, the predicate adjective alive is used

correctly after the liking verb was to describe the subject
snake. In the second example, the predicate adjective alive
is used incorrectly in front of the noun snake. In this
position, the adjective live should be used.

SKILL 50: USE PREDICATE ADJECTIVES

CORRECTLY
Predicate adjectives

alike
alive
alone
afraid
asleep

Forms used in front of noun

like, similar
live, living
lone
frightened
sleeping

A predicate adjective appears after a linking verb such

as be. It cannot appear directly in front of the noun that
it describes.

SKILL 51: USE ED AND -ING ADJECTIVES

CORRECTLY
The woman cleans the car.
VERB

The cleaning woman worked on the car.

ADJECTIVE

The woman put the cleaned car back in the garage.

ADJECTIVE

In the first example, cleans is the verb of the sentence. In the second
example, cleaning is a verbal adjective describing woman. In the third
example, cleaned is a verbal adjective describing car.

The cleaning* car is not correct because a car cannot do the action
of cleaning. (active)
The cleaned* woman is not correct because a woman cannot
receive the action of the verb clean. (passive)

SKILL 51: USE ED AND -ING ADJECTIVES

CORRECTLY
-ED AND -ING ADJECTIVES
TYPE
-ING

-ED

MEANING
Active

Passive

USE

EXAMPLE

It does the
action of the
verb.

the happily playing

children.
(The children play.)

It receives the
action of the verb.

the frequently played

record
(Someone plays the
record.)

Skills: 52-54: PROBLEMS WITH ARTICLES:

Articles

Countable
Singular
Nouns

Contable
Plural Nouns

Uncontable
Nouns

Indefinite
(General)

a dollar
an apple

---- dollars
---- apples

----money
----juice

Definite
(Specific)

the dollar
the apple

the dollars
the apples

the money
the juice

SKILL 52: Use Articles with Singular

Nouns
A singular noun must have an article (a/an, the) or some other
determiner such as my or each. A plural noun or an uncountable
noun may or may not have an article.
I have money. (Uncountable--- no article needed)
I have books. (Countable plural--- no article needed)
I have a book. (Countable singular--- article needed)

SKILL 53: Distinguish A/An

A

A is used in front of a singular noun with a consonant

sound.

AN

AN is used in front of a singular noun with a vowel

sound.

Be careful of words beginning with letters such as u, o, e, x or h.

They may begin with either a vowel or a consonant sound.

A university

A hand

A one- way
street

A
euphemism

A xerox
machine

An unhappy
man

An hour

An omen

An event

An x-ray
machine

Skill 54: Make Articles agree with Nouns

The definite article the is for both singular and plural nouns
The indefinite article a/an is used only with singular nouns.
One very common agreement error is to use the singular
indefinite a/an with a plural noun.
He saw a new movies. (incorrect)
He saw a new movie. (singular)
He saw new movies (plural)

Skill 55: Distinguish Specific and General Ideas

With countable singular nouns, it is possible to use either the

definite or the indefinite article. BUT THEY HAVE DIFFERENT
MEANINGS.
A or An (versus) THE

A or An:
1. Use it when there are many, and you dont know which one it
is.
2. Use it when there are many, and you dont care which one it is.
Tom will bring a book tomorow. (any book)


1.
2.

THE:
Use it when it is the only one.
Use it when there are many, and you and your listener
know which one it is.
Tom will bring the book tomorow. (a specific book.)

Skills 56-57: Problems with Prepositions

Prepositions
Literal way

Idiomatic way

Means exactly
what you expect

Its very far

from the real
meaning
Example

The boy ran up the mountain.

Literal

v/s

Idiomatic meaning

I call up my friend.

Prepositions
Prepositions are not only used to show time, place, and
agent, but are also used in combination with verbs,
adjectives, nouns, and in many common set expressions. We
cannot list all prepositions, but some important groups are:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Verb + Preposition
depend on lead to
Adjective/Participle + Preposition
surprised at famous for
Noun + Preposition
example of possibility of
Other Combinations with Prepositions
as a result of in addition to
Prepositions of Time and Place
on May 16 in Washington
Prepositions in Common Expressions
at present in general

VERB + PREPOSITION
account for contribute to
believe in
depend on
belong to
detach from
confined to fight for

insist on
lead to
obtain from
overcome by

plan on
rely on
result in
withdraw from

ADJECTIVE/PARTICIPLE + PREPOSITION
accustomed to
different from necessary for
afraid of
expert at
opossed to
based on
free from
possible for
compared to
famous for
related to
NOUN + PREPOSITION
cause of
equivalent of
cost of
evidence of
danger of
example of
effect on
increase in

influence on
need for
possibility of
reason for

responsible for
successful in
surprised at
typical of

result of
use of
solution to
supply of

OTHER COMBINATIONS WITH PREPOSITIONS

according to in the process of
as a consequence of in view of
as a result of on account of
because of on behalf of
by means of on the basis of
in addition to prior to
in spite of
with the exception of
in terms of with the purpose of
PREPOSITIONS IN COMMON EXPRESSIONS
at timesby land/sea/air
at present
by far
at first/last
by chance
at the moment by accident
by day/night
in common
on fire
in general
on the other hand
in existence
on the whole
in the future/past
on purpose
in theory
on land

PREPOSITIONS OF TIME AND PLACE

Prepositions of Time
at
time of day (at 8 a.m.)
noon, night midnight
in
parts of the day (in the
morning/evening/afternoon)
month (in July)
season (in the fall)
year (in 1980)
decade (in the 1980s)
century (in the nineteenth century)
on
days of the week (on Monday)
dates (on March 20)
for/since
duration of time (for three days)
point in time (since March 20)
from . . . to
from beginning time . . . to ending (from 8 a.m.
to 5 p.m.)

PREPOSITIONS OF TIME AND PLACE

Prepositions of Place
at
address (at 200 Main Street)
on
street/road/avenue (on Kings Road)
in
building (in the drugstore)
city (in Los Angeles)
state (in California)
country (in Japan)
continent (in Africa)
from . . . to
from beginning point . . . to ending
point (from Alaska to California)

Skill 56-57: Problems with Prepositions

Sometimes an incorrect preposition is given in a sentence in

the Written Expression section of the TOEFL test.
The game was called on because of the rain.
It must be called off (canceled)
I knew I could count in you to do a good job.
It must be count on someone

Sometimes a necessary preposition has been omitted from a

sentence in the Written Expression section of the TOEFL test.
Can you wait me after the game.
It should be: wait for me.
I plan attending the meeting.
It should be: plan on attending.

Skill 58: Distinguish Make and Do

Make and Do can be confused in English because their
meanings are so similar.
Make often has the idea of creating or constructing.
The following expressions show some of the possible uses
of make:
She likes to make her own clothes.
Would you like to make a cake for dessert?
If you make a mistake, you should correct it.
He was unable to make a response to the threat.

 Do often has the idea of completing or performing. The

following expressions show some of the possible uses of
do:
This morning she did all the dishes.
The students are doing assignments.
The janitors did the work they were assigned.
You can do your laundry at the laundromat.
Many uses of make and do are idiomatic and therefore
difficult to classify.
http://www.epcc.edu/ftp/Homes/tracyvm/dovsmake.html

Skill 59: Distinguish like, alike, unlike, and

dislike

Like, alike, unlike and dislike sometimes are confused because

they look so similar but they have many different uses.

1) Like and alike

John and Tom are alike.
John and Tom worked in a like manner.
As you see like and alike are adjectives that have similar
meaning.
Alike is a predicate adjective, so we can only use it after a
linking verb.
Like is used immediately before a noun so it is an adjective
form.

2) Like and unlike

Jonh is like Tom.
John is unlike Tom.
Here both words have opposite meanings, they are working as
prepositions so they must be followed by objects.
The prepositions like and unlike can also be used at the
beginning of a sentence.
3) Like and dislike
John and Tom like the course.
John and Tom dislike the course.
Here both words are written as verbs, so they are used with
subjects.

SKILL 60: DINTINGUISH OTHER, ANOTHER,

AND OTHERS
To decide how to use other, another or others, we must
consider three things:
1.- If it is singular or plural.
2.- If it is definite (the) or indefinite (a).
3.- If it is an adjective ( it appears with a noun) or if it is a
pronoun (it appears by itself).

SINGULAR
INDEFINITE

DEFINITE

PLURAL

I have another
book.

I have other
books.

I have another.

I have others.

I have the other

book.

I have the other

books.

I have the other.

I have the others.

Bibliography:
Broukal, Milada. In-A-Flash: Grammar for the TOEFL Test. New
Jersey: Thomson Learning, Inc. 2001.
Phillips, Deborah. Longman Preparation Course for the TEFL Test.
The Paper Test. New York: Pearson Education, 2003.