Principles of Nuclear Energy

Introduction

Nuclear Energy (Basics: Atomic Structure)

Bohrs Model
eP

where:
A
X X is the element symbol
A is the # of protons plus neutrons
Z
Z is the # of protons only

EXAMPLE
235

92

Z = atomic number
number of protons in an atom

N = number of neutrons
A = Z + N = mass number
number of protons plus number of neutrons

Nuclear Energy (Basics: Atomic Structure)

Two nuclei with the same number of protons can
have different number of neutrons and are called
isotopes of the same element.

Example:
A

HZ

H1
+

HYDROGEN

H1
+

DEUTERIUM

isotopes

H1
+

TRITIUM

Nuclear Energy (Basics: Atomic Structure)

Atomic Mass Unit is a unit of mass equal to
1.66x10-27 kg.
Proton
(+1)
1.007277 amu
Neutron (0)
1.008665 amu
Electron (-1)
0.000548 amu
Positron (e+, +) Positively charged electron
Neutrino () Electrically neutral. Do not
react.

Fission Chain Reaction

Fission Chain Reaction

In the fission reaction the incident neutron enters the
heavy target nucleus, forming a compound nucleus that
is excited to such a high energy level that the nucleus
"splits (fissions) into two large fragments plus some
neutrons

A large amount of energy is released in the form of

radiation and fragment kinetic energy
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Neutrons and Chain Reaction

Reactor Core components such as: Fuel, Moderator, Control rod,

Coolant, Shielding material have negative contribution in neutron
population
Only contribution to neutron population is from nuclear fuel i.e., U235 or U-238 (Small contribution)
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Nuclear Energy (Nuclear Equations)

In balancing nuclear eqns., the same nucleons show up in the products
as entered the reaction. e.g.
A3
A1
A2
A4
K

N
Z1
Z2
Z3
Z4

To balance, the following relationship must be satisfied:

Z1 Z 2 Z 3 Z 4

A1 A2 A3 A4

Sometimes the symbols or are added to products to indicate

emission of electromagnetic radiation or a neutrino. They have no
effect on balancing as both have zero Z and A.
Reactions are either exothermic or endothermic.

Nuclear Energy (Basics: Fission Equation)

U + n 236U* (A1,Z1) + (A2,Z2) + Nn + E

235

1
236 * 137
97
1
U
+
n

Ba
+
Kr
+
2
n
+
E
92
0
92
56
36
0

235

Z1 + Z2 = 92, A1 + A2 + N = 236
A1 = A2, symmetric fission rare (~0.01%)
Capture of neutron by 235U forms compound nucleus(*)
~2.4 (on average) prompt neutrons released per fission event
Immediate products are called fission fragments. They, and
their decayed products, are called fission products.
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Nuclear Energy (Basics: Fission Yield)

Most probable fission product
ranges:
85 A 105
and
130 A 150
The probability that a
particular pair of
fission fragments will
be produced by fission

Symmetric
Fission

75 A 160

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Mass Defect (Cont.)

The mass defect can be calculated using Equation:

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Mass Defect (Cont.)

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Mass Defect (Cont.)

Where is the remaining mass?

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Binding Energy
The answer lies in energy-mass equivalence formula (E =
mc2) and total energy balance
Starting with the compound nucleus, energy is required to
break all the liaisons between nucleons and finally obtain
separate nucleons OR
The amount of energy that would be released if the
nucleus was formed from the separate particles
This energy is called the binding energy and is equivalent
to the mass defect

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Binding Energy (Cont.)

Of course the heavier is the nucleus, the
larger is the overall binding energy, and
this is why we usually consider the binding
energy divided by the number of nucleons
to get a unitary binding energy allowing to
compare the stability of different nuclei

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Binding Energy (Cont.)

The variation of the binding energy with mass

number

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Binding Energy (Cont.)

The figure is based on experimental results
From the figure it is clear that:
Binding energy per nucleon in nuclei grows to about A = 60
(except in the case of some light nuclei) and
Binding energy then gradually decreases;
i.e., the middle nuclei are more strongly bound than the light
or heavy nuclei

Binding energy can be released either from light

nuclei by fusion or from heavy nuclei by fission
When light elements fuse into larger groups, they lose
mass, and heavy nuclei lose mass when they divide
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Cross Sections

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Cross Sections
The probability of occurrence of a particular reaction
between a neutron and a nucleus is called microscopic
cross section ( ) of the nucleus
This cross section varies with neutron energy
represents the effective target area that a single
nucleus presents to a bombarding particle
The larger the effective area, the greater the
probability for reaction
The units are given in barns or cm2 (1 barn = 10-24 cm2)

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Cross Sections (Cont.)

Macroscopic cross section () is the
probability of a given reaction occurring per unit travel
of the neutron
is related to the by the relationship:
=N
represents the effective target area that is presented
by all of the nuclei (N) contained in one cm3 of the
material
The units are given as 1/cm or cm-1
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Nuclear Energy (Cross-section)

The product N is equal to the total cross-section of all
the nuclei present in a unit volume and is called
macroscopic cross-section () and has units cm2/cm3 or
cm-1. It can also be explained as the probability per unit
length that a neutron will collide, i.e. the collision crosssection.
Macroscopic cross-sections are also designated according
to the reaction they represent. s N s , f N f etc.
= 1/ = mean free path. Represents the average distance
that a neutron travels without making a collision or
interaction with a target nucleus.
For an element of atomic mass (A) and density (g/cm3),
N (nuclei/cm3) can be calculated from
N

Avagadro ' s number

A

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Neutron Moderation

Neutron Moderation
The process of reducing the energy of a neutron
to the thermal region by elastic scattering is
referred to as thermalization, slowing down, or
moderation.
The material used for the purpose of
thermalizing neutrons is called a moderator.
The fast neutrons are slowed down by making
them lose their energy to the nuclei of some light
element by undergoing successive collisions
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Neutron Moderation (Cont.)

Moderating materials should be of

Low mass number

High scattering cross-section

Low absorption cross-section

Additional properties may include

High thermal conductivity

Chemically stable with respect to fuel and cladding

Stable against irradiation

Stable against temperature variation

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Reactor Power

Reaction Rates
The reaction rate (R) is the product of macroscopic
cross section and the total path length of all the
neutrons in a cubic centimeter in a second
(neutron flux )
R=
where:

R = reaction rate (reactions/sec)

= neutron flux (neutrons/cm2-sec)
= macroscopic cross section (cm-1)
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Reactor Power
Reactor power is the energy release by fission
in a reactor in unit time
Total fission per second will be the reaction
rate multiplied by the reactor volume
P=RV=V

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Nuclear Energy (Energy Released)

For the reaction,
1
U
+
n
92
0

235

97
1
Ba
+
Kr
+
2
n
56
36
0

137

MASS OF PRODUCTS
Ba: 136.9061 amu
Kr:
96.9212 amu
2 n: 2(1.00867) amu
--------------------------------------------------------------Total: 235.84464 amu
Total : 236.05257 amu
-------------------------------------------------------------- prompt
m = 235.84464 - 236.05257 = -0.20793 amu =
energy

-193.583 MeV
whichisthesameforU-233andPu-239.
MASS OF REACTANTS
U: 235.0439 amu
n: 1.00867 amu

Moreenergyis,howeverreleaseddueto(i)slowdecayofthefission
fragments,and(ii)non-fissioncaptureofexcessneutronsinreactionsthat
produceenergy,thoughmuchlessthanthatoffission.
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Nuclear Energy (Energy Released)

The total energy produced per fission reaction is about
200 MeV.
MeV
The complete fission of 1g of U-235 nuclei thus produces,

Avagadros Number x 200 MeV = 0.60225x1024 x 200

U-235 mass
235.0439
= 0.513x1024 MeV
= 2.276x1024 kWh
= 8.19x1010 J
= 0.948 MW-day
Fuel burnup: The amount of energy in MW-days produced of
each metric ton of fuel.
Fuel: All uranium, plutonium and thorium isotopes. Does not
include other compounds or mixtures. Fuel material refers to
fuel plus such other material.

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Nuclear Energy (Basics: Energy from Fission)

The total energy from fission after all of the particles from decay
have been released, is about 200 MeV.

Fission fragment kinetic energy

Neutrons
Prompt gamma rays
Fission product gamma rays
Beta particles
Neutrinos
Total

MeV
166
5
7
7
5
10
200
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Reactor Power

1 MeV = 1.60217646 10-13 joules

1 fission releases 200 MeV = 3.2 10-11 joules
Energy release per fission = 3.2 10-11 joules
Energy release per fission = 1/(3.12 1010) joules
Power = energy release per unit time (J/s = watts)
Power per fission = 1/(3.12 1010) watts
Therefore, reactor power will be:
P = total fission per second * power per fission
P = V * 1/(3.12 1010) (watts)
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Reactivity

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Reactivity
Reactivity () is a measure of the departure of a
reactor from criticality.
The reactivity is related to the value of k eff
Reactivity is a useful concept to predict how the
neutron population of a reactor will change over time.

may be positive, zero, or negative, depending

upon the value of keff.
Reactivity of a critical reactor is zero.
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Reactivity (Cont.)
No

neutrons in the preceding generation

No(keff)

neutrons in the present generation

(Nokeff - No)

numerical change in neutron Population

Fractional change in present generation is

This fractional change in neutron population per generation is referred to

as reactivity ().

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Reactivity (Cont.)

Units
A dimensionless number
A ratio of two dimensionless quantities
Artificial units are defined.
k/k
% k/k and
pcm (percent millirho)
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Modes of Radioactive Decay

Nuclides heavier than Pb (Z=82), and a few
light nuclei are unstable
To form stable nuclei these undergo
radioactive decay by emitting
radiation
- particles (-ve charge 1)
- particles (+ve charge 2)
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Radioactivity
Radioactivity is the property of certain nuclides of
spontaneously emitting particles or gamma
radiation

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Radioactivity (Cont.)
The activity (A) is the number of atoms
that disintegrate in unit time
The unit of activity
number of disintegrations per second OR
Bq
Ci (3.7*1010 Bq)

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Radioactivity (Cont.)
Half-life is defined as the time necessary for a
significant number of atoms to reduce to half,
and is represented by t
A = Ao e-t
A/Ao = e-t
ln (A/Ao) = -t
t = - ln (A/Ao)/
At t = t - A = Ao/2
t = -ln(1/2)/ = ln2/ = 0.693/
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Thank you

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