Grounded Theory

12/02/2006

Define Grounded Theory

Grounded theory, in contrast to theory obtained by logicodeductive methods, is theory grounded in data which have been
systematically obtained and analyzed through social research
(Goulding, 2005).

The role of grounded theory was, and is, the careful and
systematic study of the relationship of the individuals
experienced to society and history (Goulding, 1998).

Grounded theory requires the recognition that enquiry is always

context bound and facts should be viewed as both theory laden
and value laden.

The Influence of Symbolic Interaction

Symbolic interactionism is both a theory of

human behavior and an approach to enquiry
about human conduct and group behavior.
The classic symbolic interactionism is a microsociological theory, focuses on the nature of
individual in society and the relationships
between individual perceptions, collective action
and society (Annells, 1996)

Basic Principles of Developing theory by

Grounded Theory

1.enable prediction and explanation of behavior

2. be useful in theoretical advances in sociology
3. be applicable in practice
4. provide a perspective on behavior
5. guide and provide a style for research on
particular areas of behavior
6. provide clear enough categories and
hypotheses so that crucial ones can be verified
in present and future research

Differences between GT and Other

Qualitative Tools

GT emphasizes on theory development and building

GT has a built-in mandate to strive towards verification

through the process of category saturation.
* This involves staying in the field until no further
evidence emerges.
* Verifications is done throughout the course of the
research project, rather than assuming that verification
is only possible through follow-up quantitative data.

The Nature and Role of Theory

A theory is a set of relationships that offer a plausible

explanation of the phenomenon under study. Theorizing is
the process of constructing alternative explanations until a
best fit that explains the data most simply is obtained.

Level of theory building:

Substantive theory: developed from work in a specific
area, such as a particular type of organization.
Formal, has explanatory power across a range of situation.
Less popular

Data Collection
Identification of an area of interest
Usually researchers adopt grounded theory when
the topic of interest has been relatively ignored in the
literature or has been given only superficial attention.
Sources of data:
1. Secondary data: less time consuming, but is lack of
control in generating the data
2. Life history as data

3. Interviews: face to face and unstructured are most

common data source
key consideration for interviewing
* assess the setting
* Understand the language and culture of the
respondents
* Decide on how to present oneself
* Locate informant
* Gain trust
* Establish rapport
4. Focus Group
5. Observation
6. Survey

Glasers Five Types of Data

Baseline: factual
Interpreted: How
Properline: involves people choosing expressions to
support a particular line, e.g. postmodern
Vague: imprecise, may simply require further
investigation, or may be deliberately vague in order to
conceal an aspect of behavior.
Conceptual: usually involve an ungrounded opinion or
hypothesis, e.g. becoming self-indulgent

The Use of Memos

Could be used for any format of data collection.

The key stage in the process, and without using it
theoretically to write up ideas the researcher is not in fact
doing grounded theory (Glaser, 1978)
Can be a few lines or several pages long
Each memo should be introduced by a title or a caption,
which is usually a category or a concept.
Helps to generate relationships, abstract integrative
frameworks, and more general problems. Memos are
also an excellent source of direction for future theoretical
sampling

Advice on Using Memos

1. always give priority to memoing

2. Memoing should begin as soon as the first field data
start coming in, and usually should continue right up the
production of the final report.
3. Memos are about ideas and are used as indicators for
an analysis that is set in a conceptual frame.
4. Dont standardize memo formats or types, especially
in a multi-researcher study.
5. Memo writing is fun, often provides sharp, sunlit
moments of clarity or insight.

Theoretical Sampling

Researcher doesnt know in advance what

to sample for and where it will lead.
Samples are chosen when they are
needed rather than before the research

Constant Comparison

A fundamental feature of GT, to look for patterns

and themes.
Comparison explores differences and similarities
across incidents within the data currently
collected and provides guidelines for collecting
additional data.
This requires a different, more sophisticated,
coding technique which is commonly referred to
as axial coding and involves the process of
abstraction onto a theoretical level.

Reaching Saturation

The researcher must ensure constant comparison

is an ongoing feature of the process.
Theoretical saturation is achieved through staying
in the field until no new evidence emerge which
can inform or underpin the development of a
theoretical point.
Use the literature to enhance theoretical
sensitivity.

Interpreting the Data by Using Coding Strategies

Open Coding
* the initial stage of constant comparison during which the
data are scrutinized for every possible meaning
* starts while writing memos
* breaking down the data into distinct units of meanings
* starts with a full transcription of an interview, after which
the text is analyzed line by line in an attempt to identify
key words or phrases which connect the informants
account to the experience under investigation.

Open Coding

These labels refer to things like hospitals,

information gathering, friendship, social loss,
etc.
They are the nouns and verbs of a conceptual
world.
Some are also adjectives and adverbs --- the
properties of these categories.

example

Pain relief is a major problem when you have arthritis.

Sometimes, the pain is worse than other times, but when
it gets really bad, whew! It hurts so bad, you don't want
to get out of bed. You don't feel like doing anything. Any
relief you get from drugs that you take is only temporary
or partial.
PAIN
INTENSITY
PAIN RELIEF.
One AGENT OF PAIN RELIEF is drugs
Pain relief has a certain DURATION (could be
temporary), and EFFECTIVENESS (could be partial).

Axial Coding
Higher level of abstraction
Is achieved by specifying relationships
and delineating a core category or
construct around which the other concepts
revolve.

Axial Coding
Integration of theoretical concepts into a
conceptually complex integrated theory.
Theoretically relevant questions:
1. What are the strategies which result in
particular behaviors?
2. What are the difference conditions involved?
3. What kind of theoretically derived
comparisons would be useful there?

Element

Description

Phenomenon

In grounded theory it is sometimes the outcome of interest, or it can be the

subject.

Causal
conditions

These are the events or variables that lead to the occurrence or

development of the phenomenon. It is a set of causes and their properties.

Context

Hard to distinguish from the causal conditions. It is the specific locations

(values) of background variables. A set of conditions influencing the
action/strategy. Researchers often make a quaint distinction between
active variables (causes) and background variables (context). It has more
to do with what the researcher finds interesting (causes) and less
interesting (context) than with distinctions out in nature.

Intervening
conditions

Similar to context. If we like, we can identify context with moderating

variables and intervening conditions with mediating variables. But it is not
clear that grounded theorists cleanly distinguish between these two.

Action
strategies

The purposeful, goal-oriented activities that agents perform in response to

the phenomenon and intervening conditions.

Consequences

These are the consequences of the action strategies, intended and

unintended.

In the text segment above, it seems

obvious that the phenomenon of interest is
pain, the causal conditions are arthritis
, the action strategy is taking
drugs, and the consequence is pain relief.
Note that grounded theorists don't show
much interest in the consequences of the
phenomenon itself.

Selective Coding: Developing Core

Category
the process of choosing one category to
be the core category, and relating all other
categories to that category.
The essential idea is to develop a single
storyline around which all everything else
is draped.
There is a belief that such a core concept
always exists.

The Criteria of Selecting Core

Category
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

It must be central and account for a large proportion of

behavior
It must be based on reoccurrence in the data
A core category takes longer to saturate than other
categories/concepts
It must related meaningfully to other categories
It should have clear implications for the development
of formal theory
The theoretical analysis should e based on the core
category
It should be highly variable and modifiable (?)

Ensure Credibility through Member Checking

Writing Theory
Present data as efficient for conclusions,
indicating how the analyst obtained theory from
the data.
Use characteristic illustrations and diagrams to
convey the message.

A Great Example of Grounded Theory

Research
Goulding, 2005, Chapters 5-6