Flow Measurement

Dr. Akepati S. Reddy

Dept. Biotechnol. Environ. Sci.
Thapar University
Patiala (PUNJAB) – 147 004
 Objectives of flow measurements
• To determine
– chemical dosage to the treatment units
– air supply to aeration basins
– sludge recycling and sludge wastage rates to the
biological reactors
• To quantify flows of
– water in streams in streams and rivers
– wastewater in sewers and wastewater drains
• To facilitate flow proportionated sampling of water
• To provide daily flow records required by regulatory
agencies
Flow proportionated sampling
Flow

Base Flow

Time
 Basic types of flow Measurement
• Differential Pressure Flowmeters
• Velocity Flowmeters
• Positive Displacement Flowmeters
• Mass Flowmeters
• Open Channel Flowmeters
 Differential pressure flowmeters
• Orifice plates, venturi tubes and flow nozzles
• Based on bernoullis equation
– pressure drop over an obstruction inserted in the flow is
used as basis for flow measurement
Orifice plates
– sharp edge plate (to the upstream side)
– simple & cheap but poor accuracy at low flows
• Venturi tubes
– Preferred for high turn-down rates (10:1) or low
pressure drops
– Flow cross section area is reduced in the flow path, for
generating pressure difference, and then increased, for
pressure recovery (80% pressure recovered)
 Differential pressure flowmeters
• Flow nozzles and sonic nozzles
– used usually for air and gas flow
– simple and cheap
– turn down rate and accuracy are comparable to orifice
plates
• Pressure drop across constricted area is maximum
for orifice plates & minimum for venturi tubes
 Generalized flow obstruction in a pipe

1 2
V1

P1 P2

Continuity equation between 1 and 2: Q = A1V1 = A 2 V2

Bernoulli equation between 1 and 2: ( P2 − P1 ) ( V22 − V12 )
+ =0
ρ 2
2( P1 − P2 )
V2 ,ideal =
ρ[1 - (A 2 / A1 ) 2 ]
 Orifice Meter
This type of meter consists of a thin flat plate with a circular hole drilled
in its center. It is very simple, inexpensive and easy to install, but it can
cause significant pressure drops.

1 2

V1 Front view of
orifice plate

P1 P2

2( P1 − P2 ) Where Cυ is the discharge

V2 = C υ
ρ[1 - (A 2 / A1 ) 2 ] coefficient
 Orifice Meter
• Measures differential pressure
• Easy to install and fabricate
• Advantages: least expensive of all differential pressure devices
and good accuracy (±1%)
• Disadvantages: least efficient, high head loss, easy clogging, and
narrow range of flows (4:1)
 Venturi Meter
• Consists of a conical contraction, a short cylindrical throat and a
conical expansion
• Fluid is accelerated by being passed through the converging
cone
• A reliable flow measuring device that causes little pressure drop
• Used widely particularly for large liquid and gas flows

P1 P2

2( P1 − P2 )
V2 = C υ
ρ[1 - (A 2 / A1 ) 2 ]
 Venturi Meter
• Measures differential pressure
• Accuracy: ±1%; range: 4:1
 Nozzle Meter
• Measure differential pressure
• A Venturi meter without the diverging recovery section
• Less expensive than Venturi meter but higher head loss
• Accuracy: < ±1%; range: 4:1

P P
1 2

2( P1 − P2 )
V2 = C υ
ρ[1 - (A 2 / A1 ) ]
2
 Variable area flowmeters
• Vertically oriented glass/plastic tube with larger end
upward and with a metering float freely moving within
• Flow causes float to rise until annular space between
the float and the tube is sufficient to allow a state of
dynamic equilibrium between upward differential
pressure and buoyancy factors, and downward
gravity factors
• Height of the float indicates flow rate – tube is
calibrated and graduated to facilitate flow
measurement
• Turndown ratio is upto 12:1 and accuracy is as good
as 1% of the full scale rating
Rotameter
 Velocity flowmeters
• Flow is calculated by measuring speed in the flow at
one or more points
• Pitot tubes
– Use is restricted to point measurement
• Turbine flowmeter
– Fluid flowing through a pipe acts on vanes of a turbine
and rotate it and the rotational speed is used as basis
for flow measurement
– Turndown ratio is >100:1 and accuracy is 0.1%
 Velocity flowmeters
• Electromagnetic flowmeter
– Fluid flow through a magnetic field induces voltage
– Magnetic field is created by energized coils outside the
flow tube
– voltage produced (proportional to flow rate) is
measured flow measurement
– Used for difficult and corrosive liquids and slurries –
measures flow in both directions with equal accuracy
– High power consuming and flowing liquid should be
conductor
 Velocity flowmeters

• Ultrasonic Doppler flowmeter

– Frequency of reflected signal is modified by the
velocity and direction of the fluid flow
– if the fluid is moving towards a transducer frequency of
the returning is increased and otherwise it is decreased
– The frequency difference (reflected frequency minus
the originating frequency) is used to calculate fluid flow
speed
 The Pitot-Static Tube
P1 is a Static pressure: It
is measured by a device
(static tube) that causes no
1
P2 2 velocity change to the flow.
This is usually accomplished
P1,V1 Stagnation by drilling a small hole
Point V2=0 normal to a wall along which
the fluid is flowing.
P2 is a Stagnation
pressure: It is the pressure
measured by an open-
ended tube facing the flow
direction. Such a device is
called a Pitot tube.
 Pitot-Static tube
Bernoulli equation between 1 and 2: ( P2 − P1 ) ( V22 − V12 )
+ =0
1 ρ 2
P2 = P1 + ρV12
2 Stagnation Pressure is higher than
Static Pressure

(Recall that position 2 is a stagnation point: V2= 0)

1/ 2
 2( P2 − P1 ) 
V1 =  
 ρ 

We can measure pressures P1 and P2 using hydrostatics:

P1=Patm + ρ gh1, P2=Patm + ρ gh2

or using a Pressure Gauge
Turbine Flowmeters
• Uses a multiple-bladed rotor
(turbine) mounted within a
pipe, perpendicular to flow
• Limited to pipes running full,
under pressure, and liquids
low in suspended solids
• Excellent accuracy (±0.25%)
and a good range of flows
(10:1)
• The rotational speed is a
direct function of volume flow
rate.
• The meter factor K is found
by direct calibration.
 Flow Rate Measurement

Rating Curve
Stage or Depth

Discharge, Q
 Electromagnetic Meter
• Faraday’s law: a voltage
produced by passing a
conductor through a magnetic
field is proportional to the
velocity of the conductor
(wastewater)
• Advantages: good accuracy
(±1~2%), capable of measuring
large range of flows (10:1), no
head loss, and unaffected by
temperature, conductivity,
viscosity, turbulence, and
suspended solids
• Disadvantages: high initial cost
and need for trained personnel
to handle routine O&M
Ultrasonic Flowmeters

Ultrasonic flowmeters can be

divided into Doppler meters and
time-of-travel meters.
Doppler meters measure frequency
shift caused by liquid flow. 2
transducers are mounted in a
case. The frequency shift is
proportional to the liquid velocity.
Time-of-travel meters have 2
transducers mounted on each
side of the pipe. A time
difference proportional to the
flow can be detected.
 Positive displacement flowmeters
• Use precision fitted rotors as flow measuring elements
• Since known and fixed volumes are displaced, rotation of
rotor in these meters is proportional to the volume of fluid
displaced
• Number of rotations are counted by an integral electronic
pulse transmitter and converted to volume and flow rate
• Good for relatively nonabrasive fluids like, lubricating oils,
polymer additives, fats, printing ink, freon, etc.)
• Accuracy is up to 0.1% of full rate and turn down ratio is
70:1
Positive displacement
flowmeters

Reciprocating piston meters

Rotary vane meters
• have rotating impellers with
two or more equally divided
compartments
• fixed volume of liquid is
swept out through the
meter from each
compartment as impeller
rotates
 Mass flow meters
Measure mass flow rate directly
Thermal flow meter
• Use a heated sensing element
isolated from the fluid flow path
– flow stream conducts heat
from the sensing element –
conducted heat is directly
proportional to the mass flow
rate
• Meter’s accuracy depends on
the variations in temperature,
pressure, flow rate, heat
capacity and viscosity of the
fluid
 Direct Method

Liquid
 Weirs (Rectangular, Cipolletti,
Triangular, or V-Notch)
• Head over the weir is
measured by a float, hook
gauge, or level sensor
• Measure the flow in open
channels
• Accuracy: ±5%; range:
500:1
• Advantages: relatively
accurate, simple to install,
and inexpensive
• Disadvantages: large
amounts of head loss and
settling of solids upstream
of the weir and more
maintenance
 Parshall Flume
• Consists of a converging
section, a throat, and a
diverging section
Float actuated
• Self-cleaning and small level recorder
headloss
• Converts depth readings to
discharge using a calibration
curve
• Less accurate (±5~10%)
• Range: 10:1 ~ 75:1
 Palmer-Bowlus Flume
• Creates change in flow pattern by decreasing width of the
channel without changing its slope.
• Installed in a sewer at a manhole which causes the back-up of
the water in the channel.
• By measuring the upstream depth, the discharge is read from a
calibration curve.
• Lower head loss than the Parshall flume
• Less accurate (±5~10%)
 Acoustic Meter
• Use sound waves to measure
the flow rates
• Sonic meter or ultrasonic meter
depending on whether the
sound waves are in or above
audible frequency range
• Determine the liquid levels,
area, and actual velocity
• Advantages: low head loss,
excellent accuracy (2~3%),
usable in any pipe size, no
fouling with solids, and wide
flow ranges (10:1)
• Disadvantages: High initial cost
and need for trained personnel
to handle routine O&M
 Miscellaneous Flow
Measurement Devices
• Depth Measurement
– Need to measure the flow depth and sewer slope and use
Manning equation for flow estimation
– Frequently used for interceptor flow estimation
• Open Flow Nozzle
– Crude devices used to measure flow at the end of freely
discharging pipes.
– Must have a section of pipe that has a length of at least six
times the diameter with a flat slope preceding the discharge.
– Examples: Kennison nozzle and the California pipe
 Flow Metering Devices in
Wastewater Treatment Facilities
Raw Primary Secondary Primary Return Thickened Mixed Process
Metering device WW effluent effluent sludge sludge sludge liquor water
For open channels
Head/area
Flume x x x x
Weir x x x
Other
Magnetic (insert type) x
For closed conduits
Head/pressure
Flow tube xa xa x xa xa xa,b x x
Orifice x
Pitot tube x
Rotameter x
Venturi xa xa x xa xa xa x
Moving fluid effects
Magnetic (tube type)_ x x x x x x x
Ultrasonic (doppler) x x x xc
Ultrasonic (transmission) x x x
Vortex shedding x x x
Positive displacement
Propeller x
Turbine x x
a
Flushing or diaphragm sealed connections recommended
b
Use with in-line reciprocating pumps not recommended
c
Solids content < 4%
 Selection Criteria
• Selection Criteria
– Type of application: open channel/closed conduits
– Proper sizing: range of flow
– Fluid composition: compatibility, solids, passage
– Accuracy (±%) and repeatability
– Headloss or hydraulic head available
– Installation requirements: straight length, accessibility,
disconnection method
– Operating environment: explosion proof, resistance to
moisture and corrosive gases, temp. range
– Ease of maintenance: provision for flushing/rodding
– Cost
– Type and accessibility of the conduit
 Selection of method for flow
measurement
• Depending on the local conditions appropriate method
for flow measurement should be chosen
• Example of an appropriate technique
– Take a case where wastewater is collected into a sump
and their pumped for disposal or treatment
– Measure the sump width and length or diameter
– Mark two level - lower and upper levels – in the sump
below its inlet level
– For flow measurement operate the pumps and bring
wastewater level below the marked lower level in the
sump
– Switch of all pumps and record time taken for the water
level to raise from the lower level to the upper level
– Use this as basis for flow measurement