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Chapter 21
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Chapter 21

The Cardiovascular System

Blood Vessels and Circulation

21-2

21.1 Functions of the Circulatory System

1. Carry blood
2. Exchange nutrients, waste products, and gases
3. Transport of hormones, components of the
immune system, molecules required for
coagulation, enzymes, nutrients, gases, waste
products, etc.
4. Regulate blood pressure
5. Directs blood flow
21-3

21.2 Structural Features of Blood Vessels

Arteries
Elastic
Muscular
Arterioles

Capillaries: site of exchange with tissues

Veins: thinner walls than arteries, contain less elastic
tissue and fewer smooth muscle cells
Venules
Small veins
Medium or large veins
21-4

Capillaries
Capillary wall consists of endothelial cells (simple squamous
epithelium), basement membrane and a delicate layer of loose C.T.
Scattered pericapillary cells that are fibroblasts, macrophages or
undifferentiated smooth muscle cells.
Substances move through capillaries by diffusion through
Lipid-soluble and small water-soluble molecules through plasma
membrane
Larger water-soluble molecules pass through fenestrae or gaps
between endothelial cells.

21-5

Types of Capillaries
Continuous. No gaps between endothelial cells. No
fenestrae. Less permeable to large molecules than other
capillary types. E.g., muscle, nervous tissue.
Fenestrated. Have pores. Endothelial cells have numerous
fenestrae. Fenestrae are areas where cytoplasm is absent
and plasma membrane is made of a thin, porous
diaphragm. Highly permeable. E.g., intestinal villi, ciliary
process of eye, choroid plexus, glomeruli of kidney
Sinusoidal. Large diameter with large fenestrae. Less
basement membrane. E.g., endocrine glands (large
molecules cross their walls).
Sinusoids. Large diameter sinusoidal capillaries. Sparse
basement membrane. E.g., liver, bone marrow.
Venous sinuses are similar in structure but even larger.
E.g., spleen
21-6

Structure of Capillary Walls

21-7

Capillary Network
Blood flows from
arterioles through
metarterioles, then
through capillary network
Flow through
thoroughfare channel
fairly consistent while
flow through arterial
capillaries is intermittent
Smooth muscle in
arterioles, metarterioles,
precapillary sphincters
regulates blood flow
21-8

Arteries and Veins

Tunica intima
Endothelium
Basement membrane
Lamina propria (C.T. layer)
Internal elastic membrane. Fenestrated
layer of elastic fibers.
Tunica media: smooth muscle cells
arranged circularly around the blood
vessel.
Vasoconstriction: smooth muscles
contract, decrease in blood flow
Vasodilation: smooth muscles relax,
increase in blood flow
Tunica externa (adventitia): connective
tissue, varies from dense regular near the
vessel to loose that merges with the
surrounding C.T.
21-9

Neurovascular
Bundle

Vein

Adipose
tissue
Arteriole

Artery

Venule
Nerve

Histology of Medium Artery

Tunica interna

Tunica Media

Tunica Adventitia

Histology of Medium Vein

Tunica Interna

Tunica Media

Tunica Adventitia

Photomicrograph of Artery and Vein

21-13

Elastic Artery
Elastic or conducting arteries
Largest diameters, pressure high and fluctuates between
systolic and diastolic. More elastic tissue than muscle.
Relatively thick tunica intima, thin tunica intima

21-14

Aorta Histology
Lumen
Tunica interna

Aorta

Tunica media

Tunica
Aadventitia

Elastic
lamellae
Vaso vasorum

Muscular Artery
Muscular or medium arteries
Smooth muscle allows vessels to regulate blood supply by constricting or
dilating
Most of the smaller unnamed arteries
Thick walls due to 25-40 layers of smooth muscle.
Also called distributing arteries because smooth muscle allows vessels to
partially regulate blood supply to different regions of the body.

Smaller muscular arteries

Adapted for vasodilation and vasoconstriction .

21-16

Arterioles
Transport blood from small arteries to
capillaries
Smallest arteries where the three tunics
can be differentiated
Like small arteries, capable of
vasoconstriction and dilation

21-17

Venules and Small Veins

Venules drain capillary network.
Endothelial cells and basement membrane
with a few smooth muscle cells. As
diameter of venules increases, amount of
smooth muscle increases.
Small veins. Smooth muscle cells form a
continuous layer. Addition of tunica
adventitia made of collagenous connective
tissue
21-18

Medium and Large Veins

Medium veins. Go-between between small veins and large
veins.
Large veins. Tunica intima is thin: endothelial cells, relatively
thin layer of C.T and a few scattered elastic fibers. Tunica media
has circularly arranged smooth muscle cells. Adventitia is
predominant layer.

21-19

Valves
Valves found in all veins greater than 2 mm in diameter.
Folds in intima form two flaps that overlap.
More valves in veins of lower extremities than in veins
of upper extremities.

21-20

Other Vessel Types

Vasa vasorum: blood vessels that supply
the walls of arteries and veins. Penetrate
vessel walls from the exterior. Branches of
arteries.
Portal veins: veins that begin in a primary
capillary network, extend some distance
and end in a secondary capillary network
without a pumping mechanism, such as the
heart, between.
21-21

Neural Innervation of Blood Vessels

Unmyelinated sympathetic nerve fibers form plexi
in tunica adventitia: vasoconstriction
Small arteries and arterioles innervated to greatest
extent
Vessels of penis and clitoris innervated by
parasympathetic
Some blood vessels innervated by myelinated
fibers and act as baroreceptors that monitor stretch
and detect changes in blood pressure
21-22

Aging of the Arteries

Arteriosclerosis:
general term for
degeneration changes
in arteries making
them less elastic
Atherosclerosis:
deposition of plaque
on walls
21-23

21.3 Pulmonary Circulation

From right ventricle into pulmonary
trunk
Pulmonary trunk divides into left and
right pulmonary arteries.
Two pulmonary veins exit each lung
and enter left atrium
21-24

Pulmonary Circulation
Pulmonary trunk

Lt. Pulmonary artery

Lt. Lung

Lt. Atrium

Lt. Pulmonary veins

Rt. Pulmonary veins

21.4 Systemic Circulation

Aorta: exits left ventricle and is divided into three
parts
Ascending aorta: right and left coronary arteries branch
from here
Aortic arch: arching posteriorly and to the left and has
three branches
Brachiocephalic artery
Left common carotid
Left subclavian artery

Descending aorta
Thoracic aorta: portion in thorax
Abdominal aorta: inferior to diaphragm. Ends as two common
iliac arteries
21-26

Brachiocephalic
trunk

Ascending aorta

Lt. Common
carotid

Lt. Subclavian
artery

Aortic arch

Rt. Subclavialn artery

Brachiocephalic trunk

Rt. Common carotid

Branches of the Aorta

21-29

Thoracic
aorta
Aortic
arch

Ascending
aorta

Branches of
the Aorta

Abdominal
aorta

21-30

Coronary Arteries
Ascending Aorta
Anterior

Rt. Coronary
artery

Posterior

Lt. Coronary
artery

Arteries of the Head and Neck

21-32

21-33

21-34

Blood Flow through Brain

Carotid Arteries
Common carotid

Internal carotid

Carotid sinus

External carotid

Angiogram Internal Carotid A.

Carotid
sinus

Rt. AP view

Lat. view

Angiogram

Carotid
sinus

Common
Rt. AP view
carotid

External
jugular

Lat. view

Basilar

Cerebral Arterial Circle

Circle of Willis
Internal Carotids

Vertebrals

Circle of Willis

Basilar
Internal carotids

Vertebrals

Arterial Supply to the Brain

Ant. Cerebral

Ant. Spinal

Ant. Cerebral
distributing

Middle Cerebral

Ant. communicating

Ant. Inferior
Cerebellar

Middle Cerebral
distributing

Pontine

Arterial Supply to the Brain

Post. Cerebral

Post. Communicating

Post. Inf.
Cerebellar

Post. Cerebral
& Branches

Sup. Cerebellar

Major Arteries of the Head and Thorax

21-43

Arteries of Upper Limb

21-44

Arterial Supply to the Upper

Limb

Lt. Subclavian

Lt. Axillary

Lt. Brachial

Arterial Supply to the Upper Limb

Brachiocephalic

Brachial

Subclavian

Radial

Axillary

Ulnar

Arterial Supply Common

to the Upper Limb
Palmar digital

Proper
Palmar
digital

Superficial
Palmar arch

Princeps
pollicis
Deep
Palmar
arch

Radialis
indicis

Arteries of Upper Limb

21-48

21-49

Thoracic Aorta and its Branches

21-50

Arterial Supply to the Thorax

Aortic arch

Post. Intercostal a.

Thoracic aorta

Abdominal Aorta and its Branches

21-52

Abdominal Arteries
Abdominal Aorta

Celiac a.

Common Iliac

Gonadal a.

Abdominal Arteries
Rt. Renal a.

Lt. Renal a.

Splenic a.

Hepatic /Mesenteric Arteries

Hepatic a.

Mesenteric a. & branches

Celiac Trunk and Branches

20-56

Celiac Trunk and Branches

Lt. Gastric a.

Celiac trunk and branches

Celiac trunk

Gastroduodenal a.

Splenic a.

Common hepatic a.

Short gastric a.

Superior Mesenteric Artery

20-58

Inferior Mesenteric Artery

20-59

Pelvic Arteries
Common
Iliac a.

Internal
Iliac a.

External
Iliac a.

Arteries of Abdomen and Pelvis

21-61

21-62

21-63

Arteries of the Lower Limb

21-64

Arteries of the Lower Limb

Femoral a.

Deep Artery of Thigh

Ant. Tibial a.

Post. Tibial a.

Dorsal Foot Arteries

Dorsal a.
Dorsal Metatarsal a.

Arcuate a.
Lateral Tarsal a.

Dorsal Digital a.
Malleolar a.

Ventral Foot Arteries

Vent. Lateral Plantar a.

Vent. Medial Plantar a.

Ventral Plantar Arch

21-68

Arteries of Lower Limb

21-69

21.5 Systemic Circulation: Veins

Return blood from body to right atrium
Major veins
Coronary sinus (heart)
Superior vena cava (head, neck, thorax, upper
limbs)
Inferior vena cava (abdomen, pelvis, lower
limbs)

Types of veins
Superficial, deep, sinuses
21-70

Major Veins

21-71

Veins Draining the Heart

Great cardiac v.

Coronary sinus
Small cardiac v.

Venous Sinuses Associated with the Brain

21-73

21-74

Veins of the Head and Neck

Superior Sagittal Sinus

Occipital

Sigmoid

Inferior
Sagittal
Confluence of Sinuses

Straight

Petrosal

Transverse

Veins of Head and Neck

21-77

External Jugular Veins

Internal Jugular Veins

21-80

Head and Thorax Veins

21-81

Brachiocephalic Veins

Brachiocephalic
Veins
Superior Vena Cava

Thoracic Veins
Axillaries

Subclavians

Rt. Brachiocephalic

83

Internal jugulars

Lt. Brachiocephalic

Superior vena cava

Veins of the Upper Limb

21-84

Veins of the Upper Limb

Rt & Lt Subclavian v.

Lt Subclavian v.

Rt Subclavian v.

Lt Axillary v.

Veins of the Upper Limb

Axillary v.

Brachial v.

Deep Veins of the Upper Limb

Radial v.

Ulnar v.

Deep Forearm Veins

Radial v.

Interosseous v.

Ulnar v.

Hand Veins
Common
palmar
digital v.

Proper
palmar
digital

Deep
venous
palmar
arch

Superior
venous
palmar
arch

Superficial Arm Veins

Median cubital v.
Basilic v.

Basilic v.

Cephalic v.

Cephalic v.

Median cubital v.

Veins of the Upper Limb

21-91

21-92

Veins of the Thorax

21-93

Veins of Thorax

Azygos v.

Internal Thoracic v.

Post. Intercostal v.

21-95

Inferior Vena Cava and Its Tributaries

21-96

Veins of Abdomen and Pelvis

Inferior Vena Cava

Major Tributaries of the Inferior

Vena Cava
Common
iliac v.

gonadal v.

hepatic v.

Hepatic Portal v.

Inferior
phrenic v.

Inferior mesenteric v.

Major Tributaries of the Inferior

Vena Cava

Right renal v.

Superior mesenteric v.

Left renal v.

Splenic v.

21-100

Hepatic Portal System

Portal system: vascular system that begins and ends at a capillary
bed with no pumping mechanism in between.
Hepatic portal- liver; renal portal- kidney;
hypothalamohypophyseal portal between hypothalamus and
pituitary.
Blood entering the hepatic portal vein is rich with nutrients
collected from the intestines, but may also contain toxic
substances. Both nutrients and toxic substances will be regulated
by the liver
Nutrients: either taken up and stored or modified chemically and used by
other parts of the body
Biotransformation: Toxic substances can be broken down by hepatocytes
or can be made water soluble. To be transported in blood and excreted by
the kidneys.
21-101

Hepatic Portal System

Splenic v.

Liver

Inferior
mesenteric v.

Hepatic portal v.

Superior
mesenteric v.

21-103

Veins of Abdomen and Pelvis

21-104

Veins of the Lower Limb

21-105

Veins of the Pelvic Organs and

Lower Limb

Common iliac v.

External iliac v.

Internal iliac v.

Veins of the Pelvic Organs and

Lower Limb
Femoral v.

Deep thigh vein

Great saphenous v.

Veins of the Lower Limb

Femoral v.

Deep
thigh
vein

Great
saphenous
vein

Popliteal
vein

Veins of the Lower Limb

Anterior tibial v.

Malleolar v.

Lateral tarsal v.

Dorsal vein

Veins of the Lower Limb

Dorsal venous arch

Dorsal metatarsal

Dorsal digital

Veins of the Lower Limb

Posterior tibial

Posterior fibular

malleolar

Median
plantar

Veins of the Lower Limb

Lateral
plantar

Plantar
arch

Plantar
metatarsal

Plantar
digital

Veins of Lower Limb

21-113

21-114

21.6 Dynamics of Blood Circulation

Interrelationships between
Pressure
Flow
Resistance
Control mechanisms that regulate
blood pressure and blood flow
21-115

Blood Pressure
Measure of force exerted by blood against the wall
Blood moves through vessels because of blood
pressure
Measured by listening for Korotkoff sounds
produced by turbulent flow in arteries as pressure
released from blood pressure cuff

21-116

Blood Pressure

21-117

Laminar and Turbulent Flow

Laminar flow
Streamlined; interior of blood vessel is smooth and of
equal diameter along its length
Outermost layer moving slowest and center moving
fastest

Turbulent flow

Interrupted
Rate of flow exceeds critical velocity
Fluid passes a constriction, sharp turn, rough surface
Partially responsible for heart sounds
Sounds due to turbulence not normal in arteries and is
probably due to some constriction; increases the
probability of thrombosis
21-118

Laminar and Turbulent Flow

21-119

Blood Flow
Rate of flow through a tube is expressed as the
volume that passes a specific point per unit of
time. E.g.; cardiac output at rest is 5L/min, thus
blood flow through the aorta is 5L/min
Flow = (P1 P2/R)
P1 and P2 are pressures in the vessel at points one
and two; R is the resistance to flow
Directly proportional to pressure differences,
inversely proportional to resistance
Resistance = 128vl/D4
v is viscosity, l = length of the vessel, r is the
radius of the vessel
21-120

Poiseuilles Law
Flow decreases when resistance increases and vice
versa. Since resistance is proportional to blood
vessel diameter, constriction of a blood vessel
increases resistance and thus decreases flow
Flow =(P1 P2)/R - (P1 P2)D4/128vl
During exercise, heart beats with greater force
increasing pressure in the aorta. Capillaries to
skeletal muscle increase in diameter decreasing
resistance and increasing flow. Increased flow in
aorta can go from 5L/min to 5 times that amount

21-121

Viscosity
Measure of resistance of liquid to flow
Resistance proportionate to flow
As viscosity increases, pressure required to
flow increases
Viscosity influenced largely by hematocrit
(percentage of the total blood volume
composed of red blood cells).
Dehydration and/or uncontrolled production
of RBCs can lead to increased viscosity
which increases the workload on the heart.
21-122

Critical Closing Pressure,

Laplaces Law and Compliance
Critical closing pressure:
Pressure at which a blood
vessel collapses and blood
flow stops
Laplaces Law
Force acting on blood vessel
wall is proportional to diameter
of the vessel times blood
pressure
F= D X P; thus as diameter of a
vessel increases, force on the
wall increases. Weakened part
of a vessel wall bulges out and
is an aneurysm.

Vascular compliance:
Tendency for blood
vessel volume to
increase as blood
pressure increases
Compliance = increase
in volume/Increase in
pressure

More easily the vessel

wall stretches, the greater
its compliance
Venous system has a large
compliance (24 times
greater than that of
arteries) and acts as a
blood reservoir
21-123

21.7 Physiology of the Systemic Circulation

Determined by
Anatomy of circulatory system
Dynamics of blood flow
Regulatory mechanisms that control heart and
blood vessels

Blood volume
Most in the veins (greater compliance)
Smaller volumes in arteries and capillaries
21-124

Cross-Sectional Area
As diameter of vessels
decreases, the total crosssectional area increases and
velocity of blood flow
decreases. Only one aorta
with a cross-sectional area of
5 cm2. Total cross-sectional
area of the millions of
capillaries is 2500 cm2.
Much like a stream that
flows rapidly through a
narrow gorge but flows
slowly through a broad plane

21-125

Pressure and Resistance

Blood pressure averages 100 mm

Hg in aorta and drops to 0 mm Hg
by the time the blood gets to the
right atrium. Due to decreased
resistance to flow as crosssectional area increases.
Greatest drop in pressure occurs in
arterioles which regulate blood
flow through tissues
No large fluctuations in capillaries
and veins
Muscular arteries and arterioles
are capable of constricting or
dilating in response to autonomic
and hormonal stimulation.
Muscular arteries regulate flow
into a region of the body;
arterioles regulate flow into a
specific tissue.
21-126

Pulse Pressure
Difference between systolic and
diastolic pressures
Increases when stroke volume
increases or vascular compliance
decreases. Compliance tends to
decrease with age
(arteriosclerosis) and pressure
rises.
Pulse pressure can be used to take
a pulse to determine heart rate and
rhythmicity
Most frequent site used to measure
pulse rate is in the carpus with the
radial artery- the radial pulse.
21-127

Capillary Exchange and Regulation

of Interstitial Fluid Volume
Capillary exchange: the movement of substances into and
out of capillaries
Most important means of exchange: diffusion.
Lipid soluble cross capillary walls diffusing through plasma
membrane. E.g., O2, CO2, steroid hormones, fatty acids.
Water soluble diffuse through intercellular spaces or through
fenestrations of capillaries. E.g., glucose, amino acids.

Blood pressure, capillary permeability, and osmosis affect

movement of fluid from capillaries
Fluid moves out of capillaries at arterial end and most but
not all returns to capillaries at venous end. That which
remains in tissues is picked up by the lymphatic system
then returned to venous circulation.
21-128

Fluid Exchange Across

Capillary Walls
Net filtration pressure (NFP)- force responsible for
moving fluid across capillary walls. Two forces affect
pressure
Hydrostatic pressure: physical pressure of blood flowing
through the vessels or of fluid in interstitial spaces
Osmotic pressure: movement of solutes (plasma or tissue
fluid) through a membrane (plasma membrane) in the
presence of a non-diffusible solute (large proteins). Large
proteins do not freely pass through the capillary walls and the
difference in protein concentrations between the blood and
interstitial fluid is responsible for osmosis
21-129

Pressures Involved
NFP = Net hydrostatic pressure minus net osmotic
pressure
Net hydrostatic pressure = BP-IFP
Net osmotic pressure = BCOP-ICOP where
BP = blood pressure
IFP = interstitial fluid pressure= (lymphatic vessels are
pulling in tissue fluid)
BCOP = blood colloid osmotic pressure
ICOP = interstitial fluid colloid osmotic pressure

21-130

Fluid Exchange Across Capillaries

21-131

Edema and Capillary Exchange

If capillaries become more permeable, proteins can
leak into the interstitial fluid increasing ICOP. More
fluid moves from the capillaries into the interstitial
fluid: edema.
Chemicals of inflammation increase permeability
Decreases in plasma concentration of protein reduces
BCOP; more fluid moves into interstitial fluid
Liver disease resulting in fewer plasma proteins
Loss of plasma proteins through the kidneys
Protein starvation

Blockage of veins increases capillary BP; reduced

venous return due to gravity
Blockage or removal of lymphatic vessels (blockage:
elephantiasis; removal: cancer)
21-132

Functional Characteristics of Veins

Venous return to heart increases due to
increase in blood volume, venous tone, and
arteriole dilation
Venous tone: continual state of partial
contraction of the veins as a result of
sympathetic stimulation

21-133

Blood Pressure and the Effect of Gravity

In a standing position, hydrostatic pressure
caused by gravity increases blood pressure
below the heart and decreases pressure
above the heart.
Muscular movement improves venous
return.

21-134

21.8 Control of Blood Flow in Tissues

Local control: in most tissues, blood flow is
proportional to metabolic needs of tissues
Nervous System: responsible for routing
blood flow and maintaining blood pressure
Hormonal Control: sympathetic action
potentials stimulate epinephrine and
norepinephrine
21-135

Local Control of Blood Flow in Tissues

21-136

Local Control of Blood Flow

Blood flow can increase 7-8 times as a result of
vasodilation of metarterioles and precapillary
sphincters in response to increased rate of
metabolism
Vasomotion: periodic contraction and relaxation
of precapillary sphincters. Autoregulation.
Long-term local control: capillaries become more
dense in a region that regularly has an increased
metabolic rate.
21-137

Nervous Control of Blood Flow in the Tissues

Important in minute-to-minute regulation of
local circulation
Provides a means by which blood can be shunted
from one large area of the peripheral circulatory
system to another area by increasing resistance
Sympathetic division most important. Innervates
all vessels except capillaries, precapillary
sphincters, and most metarterioles.
Vasomotor center in lower pons and upper
medulla oblongata.
Excitatory part is tonically active. Causes
vasomotor tone. Norepinephrine
Inhibitory part can cause vasodilation by
decreasing sympathetic output

Sympathetic stimulation of adrenal medulla causes output of

norepinephrine and epinephrine into circulation. Causes vasoconstriction
in vessels (-adrenergic receptors) except in skeletal muscle where
21-138
vasodilation takes place (-adrenergic receptors)

21.9 Regulation of
Mean Arterial Pressure
Mechanisms that maintain arterial blood pressure within a
normal range of values
Mean arterial pressure (MAP): slightly less than the average
of systolic and diastolic pressures because diastole lasts
longer than systole.
70 mmHg at birth, 100 mmHg from adolescence to middle
age, 110 mmHg in healthy older individuals.
MAP = CO(PR), MAP = HR(SV)(PR)
MAP HR, SV, and PR. If any of these go up, so does MAP.
Two systems to regulate pressure: short-term and long-term

21-139

Short-Term Regulation of
Blood Pressure
Baroreceptor reflexes: change peripheral

resistance, heart rate, and stroke volume in

response to changes in blood pressure
Chemoreceptor reflexes: sensory receptors
sensitive to oxygen, carbon dioxide, and pH levels
of blood

Central nervous system ischemic

response: results from high carbon dioxide or

low pH levels in medulla and increases peripheral

resistance
21-140

Baroreceptor Reflex Control

21-141

Adrenal Medullary Mechanism

Activated when stimuli
result in a substantial
increase in sympathetic
stimulation of heart and
blood vessels (large decrease
in blood pressure, sudden
and substantial increase in
physical activity, stress)
Adrenal releases epinephrine
and norepinephrine
Hormones mimic
sympathetic stimulation of
heart and blood vessels.
21-142

Baroreceptor Effects

21-143

Chemoreceptor Reflex Control

21-144

Effects of pH and Gases

21-145

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21-146

CNS Ischemic Response

Elevation of BP in response to a lack of blood
flow to the medulla oblongata.
Functions in response to emergency situations and
BP falls below 50 mmHg
Neurons of vasomotor center strongly stimulated;
increases blood flow to brain if vessels are intact
but at the same time, decreases oxygenation of
blood because blood does not go to lungs.
Lack of oxygen causes vasomotor center to
become inactive; extensive vasodilation follows
with concomitant drop in BP. Death if CNS
ischemic response lasts longer than a few minutes.
21-147

Long-Term Regulation
of Blood Pressure

Renin-angiotensin-aldosterone mechanism
Vasopressin (ADH) mechanism
Atrial natriuretic mechanism
Fluid shift mechanism
Stress-relaxation response

21-148

Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone Mechanism

21-149

Antidiuretic Hormone (Vasopressin) Mechanism

21-150

Long-Term Control of Blood Pressure

21-151

Long-term Mechanisms
Atrial natriuretic hormone: released from cardiac
muscle cells when atrial blood pressure increases,
simulating an increase in urinary production, causing
a decrease in blood volume and blood pressure
Fluid shift: movement of fluid from interstitial
spaces into capillaries in response to decrease in
blood pressure to maintain blood volume and vice
versa.
Stress-relaxation response: adjustment of blood
vessel smooth muscle to respond to change in blood
volume. When blood volume suddenly declines and
pressure drops, smooth muscles contract and vice
versa.
21-152