Introduction to

Research Methods

Concept

mental images as summary devices for bringing together

observations and experiences that seem to have something
in common
the process of specifying the vague mental imagery in
sorting out the kinds of observations and measurements
that will be appropriate for the research
.means drawing boundaries around terms to make these
tangible, to be happened
is an early planning stage in the development of a
research initiative (a program announcement, request for
applications, or request forproposals).

Definitions

R = rationale way of thinking

E = expert/exhaustive treatment
S = search for solution
E = exactness
A = adequate date; analytical analysis
R = relationships among facts, information
C = careful recording; critical observations
H = honesty; hard work

.as the search for knowledge, or as any systematic investigation, with

an open mind, to establish novel facts, solve new or existing problems,
prove new ideas, or develop new theories.

.. systematic search for knowledge

Definitions

A broad definition of research is given by Martin

Shuttleworth - "In the broadest sense of the word, the
definition of research includes any gathering of data,
information and facts for the advancement of knowledge

Creswell states - "Research is a process of steps used to

collect and analyze information to increase our
understanding of a topic or issue". It consists of three
steps: Pose a question, collect data to answer the question,
and present an answer to the question

..systematic
investigation,
including
research
development, testing and evaluation, designed to develop
or contribute to generalizable knowledge

Definitions

research is "a studious inquiry or examination;

especially: investigation or experimentation aimed at the
discovery and interpretation of facts, revision of accepted
theories or laws in the light of new facts, or practical
application of such new or revised theories or laws
..a devoted attempt of finding out the truth
..a careful inquiry or examination to discover new
information or relationships and to expand and to verify
the existing knowledge
.as the formal, systematic and intensive process of
carrying on the scientific method of analysis
is the systematic collection, analysis and interpretation
of data to answer a certain question or to solve a problem

Definitions

is a process of finding facts and arranging them in

such a manner that information is obtained regarding any
fact, figure or phenomenon.
..as the scientific investigation of phenomena which
includes
collection,
presentation,
analysis
and
interpretation of facts that lines an individuals speculation
with reality.
.is the pursuit of truth with the help of study,
observation, comparison and experiment; the search for
knowledge through objective and systematic method of
finding solutions to a problem

Importance/Purpose
The purpose of research can be a complicated issue and
varies across different scientific fields and disciplines
to solve problems
to make a sound decision; is very vital to our everyday
decision making.
to obtain academic degrees
to unveil the truth
to acquaint with the facts/happening
to find out causal/underlying relationships

Importance/Purpose

to fulfill an academic requirement for example as partial

fulfillment for the award of a doctorate degree.
to solve practical problems of the society
for enjoyment; some people enjoy the intellectual
challenge of creative work
delegation by some authority; a researcher may be called
upon to study a specified phenomenon by some higher
authority.
to generate new theories, confirm existing ones or
disapprove the previous ones
to be informed about the situation
to contribute to the existing body of knowledge. This is
mainly triggered by curiosity about a subject.

Importance/Purpose
The purposes may be :
Explanation - Possibly the most cited reason for conducting
research is to use it to explain why something is occurring.
Prediction - Research is used to help assess a situation and
predict what may happen in the future.
Monitoring - Many decisions made must be monitored to
insure that goals are being attained.
Exploratory/Formulative/Discovery/New improved situation
finding out new situation
Hypothesis Testing - Finally, research helps test theories
about some issues. Hypothesis testing, which is at the heart
of scientific research, relies on statistical analysis to help
evaluate a hypothesis.
Descriptive characteristics of a particular individual, thing
Diagnostics testing frequency at which something occurs

Importance/Purpose
Research in whatever field of inquiry has four purposes:

Describing and explaining: This is the attempt to understand

the world we live in. Research is concerned with acquiring
knowledge, establishing facts and developing new methods.
Prediction: In research, predictions are usually stated as
hypotheses, i.e. clear unambiguous statements which can be
subjected to scientific verification or refutation. We are able
to say that given these conditions then this is likely to happen.
Control: Control represents the way in which research can be
applied to real problems and situations, thus helping us to
shape our environment. When we understand the relationship
between variables we are able to control our environment to
suit our interests.

Characteristics

Gathering new data or using existing data for a new purpose.

Directed towards the solution of a problem.
Relies on empirical evidence, i.e. on events or data that can be
verified by observation.
Systematic in procedures of planning, collection of data,
analysis and reporting. It follows clearly stipulated procedures.
Generalizing findings to larger groups by discovering general
principles that will be helpful in predicting future occurrences.
Requires careful and accurate observation and description.
Logical and objective; every possible step is taken to ensure
validity of procedure, tools and conclusions.
Research findings sometimes contrary to popular belief.

Characteristics

Empirical. Research is based on direct experience or

observation by the researcher.
Logical. Research is based on valid procedures and principles.
Cyclical. Research is a cyclical process because it starts with a
problem and ends with a problem.
Analytical. Research utilizes proven analytical procedures in
gathering the data, whether historical, descriptive,
experimental and case study.
Critical. Research exhibits careful and precise judgment.
Methodical. Research is conducted in a methodical manner
without bias using systematic method and procedures.
Replicability. The research design and procedures are
replicated or repeated to enable the researcher to arrive at
valid and conclusive results.

Characteristics

Reliability
Validity
Systematic
Critical
Rigorous
Accuracy
Credibility
Generalizability.
Empirical
Systematic
Controlled

Characteristics
Characteristics of the Researcher

Intellectual Curiosity. A researcher undertakes a deep

thinking and inquiry of the things, and situations around
him/her.
Prudence. The researcher is careful to conduct his/her
research study at the right time and at the right place wisely,
efficiently, and economically.
Healthy Criticism. The researcher is always doubtful as to
the truthfulness of the results.
Intellectual Honesty. An intelligent researcher is honest to
collect or gather data or facts in order to arrive at honest
results.
Intellectual Creativity A productive and resourceful
investigator always creates new researches.

Characteristics
Qualities of a Good researcher:

Research-oriented
Efficient
Scientific
Effective
Active
Resourceful
Creative
Honest
Economical
Religious

Types of Research
Descriptive vs. Analytical
Applied vs. Fundamental
Quantitative vs. Qualitative
Conceptual vs. Empirical
Some Other Types of Research - based on either the
purpose of research, or the time required to accomplish
research, on the environment in which research is done, or
on the basis of some other similar factor

one-time research or longitudinal research

field-setting research or laboratory research or simulation research
clinical or diagnostic research
Exploratory
Historical research
conclusion-oriented

Research Approaches

Quantitative approach
Qualitative approach

Typologies
BASIC RESEARCH
Also called Pure or fundamental Research, it is undertaken for
increase in knowledge. It is conducted to satisfy any curiosity such
as: (a) what makes things happen, (b) why society changes and (c)
why social relations are in a certain way. In fact, it is the source of
most new theories, principles and ideas. The main motivation is to
expand man's knowledge. To sum up, basic research is purely
theoretical to increase our understanding of certain phenomena or
behavior but does not seek to solve any existing problem.
Applied research
It is use of basic research or past theories, knowledge and methods
for solving an existing problem. It deals with practical problems. In
the present world situation, more emphasis is being given to
applied research to solve problems arising out of overpopulation
and scarcity of natural resources. Applied research should not be
treated the same as Research & Development (R&D) which is
involved in developing ideas/products demanded by the existing
clients.

Typologies
Research may be Obtrusive or Non-Obtrusive

Obtrusive research - where the researcher introduces

conditions that
influence participants. Where the researcher manipulates the
environment.
Non-obtrusive research - where researcher avoids influencing
subjects in
any way and tries to be as inconspicuous as possible.

Action research is a methodology that combines action and

research to examine specific questions, issues or phenomena
through
observation
and
reflection,
and
deliberate
intervention to improve practice.

Typologies
Applied research is research undertaken to solve practical
problems rather than to acquire knowledge for knowledge sake.
Basic research is experimental and theoretical work undertaken
to acquire new knowledge without looking for long-term benefits
other than the advancement of knowledge.
Clinical trials are research studies undertaken to determine
better ways to prevent, screen for, diagnose or treat diseases.
Epidemiological research is concerned with the description of
health and welfare in populations through the collection of data
related to health and the frequency, distribution and determinants
of disease in populations, with the aim of improving health.
Evaluation research is research conducted to measure the
effectiveness or performance of a program, concept or campaign
in achieving its objectives.

Typologies
Literature review is a critical examination, summarisation,
interpretation or evaluation of existing literature in order to
establish current knowledge on a subject.
Qualitative research is research undertaken to gain
insights concerning attitudes, beliefs, motivations and
behaviours of individuals to explore a social or human
problem and include methods such as focus groups, in-depth
interviews, observation research and case studies.
Quantitative research is research concerned with the
measurement of attitudes, behaviours and perceptions and
includes interviewing methods such as telephone, intercept
and door-to-door interviews as well as self-completion
methods such as mail outs and online surveys.

Typologies
Service or program monitoring and evaluation involves
collecting and analysing a range of processes and outcome
data in order to assess the performance of a service or
program and to determine if the intended or expected
results have been achieved.
Ex-post research: relation between dependable and
independent variables
Experimental/Laboratory research:
Survey research:
Historical research: describes what was-mostly non
obtrusive
Descriptive research: describes what is-mostly non-obtrusive
Correlation research: makes comparisons, looking for trends
or tendencies

Research Process

Research Process
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.

Formulating the research problem

Extensive literature review
Developing the hypothesis
Preparing the research design
Determining sample design
Collecting the data
Execution of the project
Analysis of data
Hypothesis testing
Generalization and interpretation
Preparation of report of presentation of results

Developing of working
hypothesis
a)

b)

c)
d)

Discussions with colleagues and experts about

the problem, its origin and the objectives in
seeking a solution;
Examination of data and records, if available,
concerning the problem for possible trends,
peculiarities and other clues;
Review of similar studies in the area or of the
studies on similar problems; and
Exploratory personal investigation which involves
original field interviews on a limited scale with
interested parties and individuals with a view to
secure greater insight into the practical aspects
of the problem.

Preparing the research

design
1.
2.
3.

4.
5.

The means of obtaining the information;

The availability and skills of the researcher
and his staff (if any);
Explanation of the way in which selected
means of obtaining information will be
organised and the reasoning leading to the
selection;
The time available for research; and
The cost factor relating to research, i.e., the
finance available for the purpose.

Determining sample design

Deliberate sampling
Simple random sampling
Systematic sampling
Stratified sampling
Quota sampling
Cluster sampling and area sampling
Multistage sampling
Sequential sampling

Deliberate sampling
It is a kind of non-probability sampling
that involves the selection of components
based on factors excluding random
chance.
The researcher purposively or deliberately
selects certain units of the universe to
form a sample that would represent the
universe.

Simple random sampling

It is a kind of probability sampling, which
provides each member of the population
with a calculable and non-zero probability
of selection in the sample.
Since every member is given an equal
chance of being selected, this type of
sampling is thus considered as a reliable
way of selecting a sample from a given
population.

Systematic sampling

In this method, elements from a large

population are selected at periodic
intervals according to a random starting
point, i.e., every nth element is selected
for the sample, where n can be any
random position of an element.

Stratified sampling

In this method, the researcher divides the

entire population into different subgroups
or strata, and then randomly selects
elements proportionally from the strata to
include in the sample.

Quota sampling
It is a non-probability sample in which the
researcher selects random units for a
sample according to certain given criteria
or quota.
Elements are selected according to prespecified criteria in such a way that the
sample represents the same
characteristics of the population under
study.

Cluster sampling
Cluster sampling is a sampling technique
used when "natural" but relatively
homogeneous groupings are evident in a
statistical population.
It is often used in marketing research.
Area sampling geographical cluster

Multistage sampling

Multi-stage sampling represents a more

complicated form of cluster sampling in
which larger clusters are further
subdivided into smaller, more targeted
groupings for the purposes of surveying

Sequential sampling

Sequential sampling is a non-probability

sampling technique wherein the
researcher picks a single or a group of
subjects in a given time interval, conducts
his study, analyzes the results then picks
another group of subjects if needed and so
on.

Collecting the data

By observation
Through personal interview
Through telephone interviews
By mailing of questionnaires
Through schedules

Preparation of report
Introduction
Summary of findings
Main report
Conclusion

Criteria for good research

Good
Good
Good
Good

research
research
research
research

is
is
is
is

systematic
logical
empirical
replicable

Problems Encountered by
Researchers in India

The lack of a scientific training in the methodology of

research
There is insufficient interaction
There is the need for generating the confidence that
data will not be misused
Research studies overlapping one another
There does not exist a code of conduct for researchers
Difficulty of adequate and timely secretarial assistance
Library management and functioning is not
satisfactory at many places