Introduction to

Pneumatics

Air Production System

Air Consumption System

What can Pneumatics do?

Operation of system valves for air, water or chemicals

Operation of heavy or hot doors
Unloading of hoppers in building, steel making, mining and chemical industries
Ramming and tamping in concrete and asphalt laying
Lifting and moving in slab molding machines
Crop spraying and operation of other tractor equipment
Spray painting
Holding and moving in wood working and furniture making
Holding in jigs and fixtures in assembly machinery and machine tools
Holding for gluing, heat sealing or welding plastics
Holding for brazing or welding
Forming operations of bending, drawing and flattening
Spot welding machines
Riveting
Operation of guillotine blades
Bottling and filling machines
Wood working machinery drives and feeds
Test rigs
Machine tool, work or tool feeding
Component and material conveyor transfer
Pneumatic robots
Auto gauging
Air separation and vacuum lifting of thin sheets
Dental drills
and so much more new applications are developed daily

Properties of compressed air

Availability
Storage
Simplicity of design and control
Choice of movement
Economy
4

Properties of compressed air

Reliability
Resistance to Environment
Environmentally clean.
Safety

What is Air?
Nitrogen
Oxygen
Carbon Dioxide
Argon
Nitrous Oxide
Water Vapor
In a typical cubic foot of air --there are over 3,000,000
particles of dust, dirt, pollen,
and other contaminants.
Industrial air may be 3 times (or more)
more polluted.

The weight of a
one square inch
column of air
(from sea level
to the outer atmosphere,
@ 680 F, & 36% RH)
is 14.69 pounds.
6

HUMIDITY & DEWPOINT

Temperature C

0
4.98

5
6.99

10
9.86

15
13.76

20
18.99

25
25.94

30
35.12

35
47.19

40
63.03

4.98

6.86

9.51

13.04

17.69

23.76

31.64

41.83

54.11

0
4.98

5
3.36

10
2.28

15
1.52

20
1.00

25
0.64

30
0.4

35
0.25

40
0.15

g/m (Atmospheric)

4.98

3.42

2.37

1.61

1.08

0.7

0.45

0.29

0.18

Temperature F
g/ft3 *(Standard)
g/ft3 (Atmospheric)
Temperature F
g/ft3 (Standard)
g/ft3 (Atmospheric)

32
.137
.137
32
.137
.137

40
.188
.185
30
.126
.127

60

80
.78
.71
10
.053
.056

100
1.48
1.29
0
.033
.036

120
2.65
2.22
-10
.020
.023

140
4.53
3.67
-20
.012
.014

160
7.44
5.82
-30
.007
.009

180
11.81
8.94
40
.004
.005

g/m n *(Standard)
3

g/m (Atmospheric)
Temperature C
3

g/m n (Standard)
3

.4
.375
20
.083
.085

Pressure and Flow

10
p (bar)
9

S = 1 mm 2

Example

P1 = 6bar

P1
P2

P = 1bar

P2 = 5bar

Q = 54 l/min

(1 Bar = 14.5 psi)

Sonic Flow
Range

1
0

20

40

Qn

60

80

(54.44 l / min)

100

120
3
Q (dm n /min)
8

Air Treatment

Compressing Air
One cubic foot of air

Compression
ratio

psig + 1 atm
1 atm

compressor
One cubic foot of
100 psig
compressed air

7.8 cubic feet of free air

CFM

vs

SCFM

(at Standard conditions)

with 7.8 times the

moisture and dirt

Compressed air is always related at Standard conditions.

10

Relative Humidity
Compressor
Exit

Reservoir
Tank

Adsorbtion Dryer

Airline
Drop

Compressor

1 ft3 @100 psig

1950 F

1 ft3 @100 psig

770 F

1 ft3 @100 psig

-200 F

1 ft3 @100 psig

770 F

100% RH
57.1
grams of H20

100% RH
.73
grams of H20

100% RH
.01
grams of H20

0.15% RH
.01
grams of H20

56.37
grams of H20

.72
grams of H20
11

Air Mains
Dead-End
Main

Ring
Main
12

Pressure
It should be noted that the SI unit of pressure is the Pascal (Pa)
1 Pa = 1 N/m2 (Newton per square meter)

This unit is extremely small and so, to avoid huge numbers in

practice, an agreement has been made to use the bar as a unit
of 100,000 Pa.
100,000 Pa = 100 kPa = 1 bar
Atmospheric Pressure
=14.696 psi =1.01325 bar =1.03323 kgf/cm2.

13

Isothermic change (Boyles Law)

with constant temperature, the pressure of a given mass of gas is inversely
proportional to its volume

P1 x V1 = P2 x V2
P2 = P1 x V1
V2
V2 = P1 x V1
P2

Example P2 = ?
P1 = Pa (1.013bar)
V1 = 1m
V2 = .5m

P2 = 1.013 x 1
.5
= 2.026 bar

14

Isobaric change (Charles Law)

volume
at constant pressure, a given mass of gas increases in volume by 1 of its
for every degree C in temperature rise.
273
V1 = T1
V2
T2
V2 = V1 x T2
T1
T2 = T1 x V2
V1

Example V2 = ?
V1 = 2m
T1 = 273K (0C)
T2 = 303K (30C)

V2 = 2 x 303
273
= 2.219m

15

10

Isochoric change Law of Gay Lussac

at constant volume, the pressure is proportional to the temperature

P1 x P2
T1 x T2
P2 = P1 x T2
T1
T2 = T1 x P2
P1

Example P2 = ?
P1 = 4bar
T1 = 273K (OC)
T2 = 298K (25C)

P2 = 4 x 298
273
= 4.366bar

16

P1 = ________bar
T1 = _______C ______K
T2 = _______C ______K

17

 (mm)

2.5
1000

10

12

16

20

25

100000
50000
40000

300
250
200

p : (bar) 10

150

25000
20000

15000

125

12500

100

10000

50
40

5000
4000

30
25
20
15

2500
2000
1500

12.5

1250

5
4

500
400

10

2.5

1000

32

40

50

63

80

100

125 140

160

200

(mm)

250

250
300

18

F (N)

F (N)

500
400

30

Force formula transposed

Example
D=

4 x FE
x P

FE = 1600N
P = 6 bar.

D=

4 x 1600
3.14 x 600,000
D=
6400
1884000
D = .0583m
D = 58.3mm

A 63mm bore cylinder would be selected.

19

Load Ratio
This ratio expresses the percentage of the required force
needed from the maximum available theoretical force at a
given pressure.
L.R.= required force x 100%
available theoretical force

max.

Maximum load ratios

Horizontal.70%~ 1.5:1
Vertical.50%~ 2.0:1

20

Cyl.Dia

Mass (kg)

25

100
50
25
12.5

51.8

32

180
90
45
22.5

54.9

40

250
125
65
35

54.6

50

400

--

200

71.3
35.7

84.8
42.4

67.4
33.7

80.1
40.1

69.7
34.8

82.8
41.4

71.4
35.7

84.4
42.2

63

80

100

100
50

50

650
300
150
75

(94.4)
47.2

1000
500
250
125

(97.6)
48.8

1600
800
400
200

50

60

0.2
0.01

(87.2) (96.7)
43.6
48.3

0.01

71.5
35.7

45
0.2

84.9
342.5

0.01

50.9
25.4

(95.6)
47.8

53

78.4
39.2

(93.1)
46.6

47.6

52.8

72.4
39

(86)
46.3

(87)
43.5

(96.5)
48.3

82.3
41.1

(91.2)
45.6

85
42.5

(94.3)
47.1

(87)
43.5

(96.5)
48.3

30
0.2

67.4
33.7

0.01
4
2.2
1
0.5

0.2

55.8
27.9

73.9
37

4.4
2.2
1.1
0.55

43.9
22
11

(99.2)
51.6
27.8

68.3
36.8

3.9
2
1
0.5

78
39
20.3
10.9

79.9

50.8
25.4

67.3
33.6

1
0.5

40

48
24

63.6
31.8

4.1
1.9
0.9
0.5

81.8
37.8
18.9
9.4

49.6
24.8

65.7
32.8

3.9
2
1
0.5

78.1
39
19.5
9.8

50.8
25.4

67.3
33.6

4
2
1
0.5

79.9
40
20
10

80
40
20
10

20
0

Table 6.16 Load Ratios for 5 bar working pressure and friction coefficients of 0.01 and 0.2

21

Speed control
The speed of a cylinder is define by the
extra force behind the piston, above the
force opposed by the load
The lower the load ratio, the better the
speed control.

22

Angle of Movement
1. If we totally neglect friction, which cylinder diameter is needed to
horizontally push a load with an 825 kg mass with a pressure of 6 bar;
speed is not important.

2. Which cylinder diameter is necessary to lift the same mass with the
same pressure of 6 bar vertically if the load ratio can not exceed 50%.

3. Same conditions as in #2 except from vertical to an angle of 30.

Assume a friction coefficient of 0.2.

4. What is the force required when the angle is increased to 45?

23

F = G (sin + cos )
F=G

F = G

W a =m /2 v

Y axes, (vertical lifting force).. sin x M

X axes, (horizontal lifting force).cos x x M
Total force = Y + X
= friction coefficients
24

Example
F = ________ (N)

= .01
150kg
40

Force Y = sin x M = .642 x 150 = 96.3 N

Force X = cos x x M = .766 x .01 x 150 = 1.149 N
Total Force = Y + X = 96.3 N + 1.149 N = 97.449 N

25

 = __
______kg
_____

Force Y = sin x M =
Force X = cos x x M =
Total Force = Y + X =
F = ________ (N)
26

Temperature C

0
4.98

5
6.99

10
9.86

15
13.76

20
18.99

25
25.94

30
35.12

35
47.19

40
63.03

4.98

6.86

9.51

13.04

17.69

23.76

31.64

41.83

54.11

0
4.98

5
3.36

10
2.28

15
1.52

20
1.00

25
0.64

30
0.4

35
0.25

40
0.15

3
g/m (Atmospheric) 4.98

3.42

2.37

1.61

1.08

0.7

0.45

0.29

0.18

g/m n *(Standard)
3

g/m (Atmospheric)
Temperature C
3

g/m n (Standard)

27

13

Relative humidity (r.h.) = actual water content

X
100%
saturated quantity (dew point)
Example 1
T = 25C
r.h = 65%
V = 1m

From table 3.7 air at 25C contains

23.76 g/m
23.76 g/m x .65 r.h = 15.44 g/m

28

13

Relative Humidity Example 2

V = 10m
T1= 15C
T2= 25C
P1 = 1.013bar
P2 = 6bar
r.h = 65%

From 3.17, 15C = 13.04 g/m

13.04 g/m x 10m = 130.4 g
130.4 g x .65 r.h = 84.9 g
V2 = 1.013 x 10 = 1.44 m
1.013
From 3.17, 25C = 23.76 g/m
23.76 g/m x 1.44 m = 34.2 g
84.9 - 34.2 = 50.6 g

? H0
will condense out

6+

50.6 g of water will condense out

29

13

V = __________m
T1= __________C
T2= __________C
P1 =__________bar
P2 =__________bar
r.h =__________%
?
__________H0
will condense out

30

Formulae, for when more exact values are required

Sonic flow

= P1 + 1.013 > 1.896 x (P2 + 1,013)

Pneumatic systems cannot operate under sonic flow conditions

Subsonic flow = P1 + 1.013

< 1.896 x (P2 + 1,013)

The Volume flow Q for subsonic flow equals:

Q (l/min) = 22.2 x S (P2 + 1.013) x P

31

16

Sonic / Subsonic flow

Example

P1 = 7bar
P2 = 6.3bar
S = 12mm
l/min

P1 + 1.013 ? 1.896 x (P2 + 1.013)

7 + 1.013 ? 1.896 x (6.3 + 1.013)
8.013 ? 1.896 x 7.313
8.013 < 13.86 subsonic flow.
Q = 22.2 x S x (P2 + 1.013) x P
Q = 22.2 x 12 x (6.3 + 1.013) x .7
Q = 22.2 x 12 x 7.313 x .7
Q = 22.2 x 12 x 5.119
Q = 22.2 x 12 x 2.26

Q = 602 l/min
32

16,17

P1 = _________bar
P2 = _________bar
S = _________mm
Q = ____?_____l/min

33

Receiver sizing

Example
V = capacity of receiver
Q = compressor output l/min
Pa = atmospheric pressure
P1 = compressor output
pressure
V = Q x Pa
P1 + Pa

If
Q = 5000
P1 = 9 bar
Pa = 1.013
V = 5000 x 1.013
9 + 1.013
V = 5065 10.013

V = 505.84 liters

34

22

35

29

36

29

The Water runs into the

Auto Drain

The Water remains

in the Pipe

37

30

Sizing compressor air mains

Example
30 = .24 kPa/m
125
Q = 16800 l/min
16800 x .00001667 = 0.28 m/s
P1 = 9 bar (900kPa)
chart lines on Nomogram
P = .3 bar (30kPa)
L = 125 m pipe length
P = kPa/m
L
l/min x .00001667 = m/s
38

31

4"

2
1.5
2

3.0
2.5

2.25
2.0
1.75
1.5

1
0.5
0.4

6
7
8

0.5

0.4

10
11
12

0.2

1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6

0.15
0.1

2.5"
2"

60
50

1.5"

40

1.25"

35
30

0.05
0.04
0.03
0.025
0.02

0.3
0.25

0.015

0.2
Line
Pressure
(bar)

80
70

0.3

4
5

3"

100
90

0.01

0.15

1"

3/4"
1/2"

25

20

15

3/8"
X
p
kPa / m
= bar /100 m
Pipe Length

3
Q (m n /s
Reference
Line

Inner Pipe Dia.,

mm

39

33

Type of Fitting
Elbow
90* Bend (long)
90* Elbow
180* Bend
Globe Valve
Gate Valve
Standard Tee
Side Tee

Nominal pipe size (mm)

15
20
25
30
40
50
65
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.7
0.8
1.1
1.4
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.6
1.8
2.2
2.6
3.0
0.5
0.6
0.8
1.1
1.2
1.7
2.0
0.8
1.1
1.4
2.0
2.4
3.4
4.0
0.1
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.1
0.2
0.2
0.4
0.4
0.5
0.7
0.5
0.7
0.9
1.4
1.6
2.1
2.7
Table 4.20 Equivalent Pipe Lengths for the main fittings

80
1.8
0.9
3.9
2.6
5.2
0.6
0.9
3.7

100
2.4
1.2
5.4
3.7
7.3
0.9
1.2
4.1

125
3.2
1.5
7.1
4.1
9.4
1.2
1.5
6.4

40

34

Sizing compressor air mains

Example 2
Add fittings to example 1
From table 4.20

30kPa = 0.22kPa/m
135m
Chart lines on Nomogram

2 elbows @ 1.4m = 2.8m

2 90 @ 0.8m = 1.6m
6 Tees @ 0.7m = 4.2m
2 valves @ 0.5m = 1.0m
Total
= 9.6m
125m + 9.6 = 134.6m
=135m
41

31

4"

2
1.5
2

3.0
2.5

2.25
2.0
1.75
1.5

1
0.5
0.4

6
7
8

0.5

0.4

10
11
12

0.2

1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6

0.15
0.1

2.5"
2"

60
50

1.5"

40

1.25"

35
30

0.05
0.04
0.03
0.025
0.02

0.3
0.25

0.015

0.2
Line
Pressure
(bar)

80
70

0.3

4
5

3"

100
90

0.01

0.15

1"

3/4"
1/2"

25

20

15

3/8"
X
p
kPa / m
= bar /100 m
Pipe Length

3
Q (m n /s
Reference
Line

Inner Pipe Dia.,

mm

42

33

Using the ring main example on page 29 size for the

following requirements:

Q = 20,000 l/min
P1 = 10 bar (_________kPa)
P = .5 bar (_________kPa)
L = 200 m pipe length
P = kPa/m
L
l/min x .00001667 = m/s
43

Aftercooler
Tank

Refrigerated
Air Dryer
Auto
Drain
Compressor

a
Auto
Drain

2
3

a Micro Filter

b Sub-micro Filter
c Odor Removal Filter
d Adsorbtion Air

Dryer
a

4
5
6
7
44

39

Example

P = 7 bar (700,000 N/m)

D = 63mm (.063m)
d = 15mm (.015m)
F = x (D -d) x P 4
F = 3.14 x (.063 - .015) x 700,000 4
F = 3.14 x (.003969 - .0.000225) x 700,000
F = .785 x .003744 x 700,000

F = 2057.328 N

45

54

 (mm)

2.5
1000

10

12

16

20

25

100000
50000
40000

300
250
200

p : (bar) 10

150

25000
20000

15000

125

12500

100

10000

50
40

5000
4000

30
25
20

2500
2000
1500

15
12.5

1250

5
4

500
400

10

2.5

1000

32

40

50

63

80

100

125 140

160

200

(mm)

250

250
300

46

F (N)

F (N)

500
400

30

Example
Calculate remaining force

M = 100kg
P = 5bar
= 32mm
= 0.2
F = /4 x Dx P = 401.9 N
From chart 6.16
90KG = 43.9% Lo.
To find Lo for 100kg

43.9 x 100= 48.8 % Lo.

90

401.9 x 48.8 (.488) = 196N

100
assume a cylinder efficiency of 95%

196 x 95 = 185.7 N
100
Newtons = kg m/s , therefor

185.7 N = 185.7 kg m/s

divide mass into remaining force

m/s = 185.7 kg m/s

100kg

= 1.857 m/s

47

M = _______kg
P = _______bar

= _______mm
= 0.2
F = /4 x Dx P = 401.9 N
48

Air Flow and Consumption

Air consumption of a cylinder is defined as:
piston area x stroke length x number of single strokes per minute x absolute pressure in bar.

Q = D (m) x x (P + Pa) x stroke(m) x # strokes/min x 1000

4
49

Piston dia.
20
25
32
40
50
63
80
100

3
0.124
0.194
0.319
0.498
0.777
1.235
1.993
3.111

Working Pressure in bar

4
5
6
0.155
0.186
0.217
0.243
0.291
0.340
0.398
0.477
0.557
0.622
0.746
0.870
0.971
1.165
1.359
1.542
1.850
2.158
2.487
2.983
3.479
3.886
4.661
5.436

7
0.248
0.388
0.636
0.993
1.553
2.465
3.975
6.211

Table 6.19 Theoretical Air Consumption of double acting cylinders from 20 to 100 mm dia,
in liters per 100 mm stroke

Example.

From table 6.19... 80 at 6 bar = 3.479 (3.5)l/100mm stroke

= 80
stroke = 400mm
s/min = 12 x 2
P
= 6bar.

Qt = Q x

stroke(mm)
100
Qt = 3.5 x 400 x 24
100
Qt = 3.5 x 4 x 24

# of extend + retract strokes

Qt = 336 l/min.
50

Peak Flow
For sizing the valve of an individual cylinder we need to
calculate Peak flow. The peak flow depends on the
cylinders highest possible speed. The peak flow of all
simultaneously moving cylinders defines the flow to which
the FRL has to be sized.
To compensate for adiabatic change, the theoretical
volume flow has to be multiplied by a factor of 1.4. This
represents a fair average confirmed in a high number of
practical tests.
Q = 1.4 x D (m) x x (P + Pa) x stroke(m) x # strokes/min x 1000
4
51

Piston dia.
20
25
32
40
50
63
80
100

Working Pressure in bar

4
5
6
0.217
0.260
0.304
0.340
0.408
0.476
0.557
0.668
0.779
0.870
1.044
1.218
1.360
1.631
1.903
2.159
2.590
3.021
3.482
4.176
4.870
5.440
6.525
7.611

3
0.174
0.272
0.446
0.697
1.088
1.729
2.790
4.355

7
0.347
0.543
0.890
1.391
2.174
3.451
5.565
8.696

Table 6.20 Air Consumption of double acting cylinders in liters

per 100 mm stroke corrected for losses by adiabatic change

Example.

= 80
stroke = 400mm
s/min = 12 x 2
P
= 6bar

From table 6.20... 80 at 6 bar = 4.87 (4.9)l/100mm stroke

Qt= Q

x stroke(mm)
100
Qt = 4.9 x 400 x 24
Qt = 4.9 x 4 x 24

# of extend + retract strokes

100

Qt = 470.4 l/min.
52

Formulae comparison

Q = 1.4 x D (m) x x (P + Pa) x stroke(m) x # strokes/min x 1000

4
Q = 1.4 x .08 x .785 x ( 6 + 1.013) x .4 x 24 x 1000
Q = 1.4 x .0064 x .785 x 7.013 x .4 x 24 x 1000

Q = 473.54

53

Q = 1.4 x D (m) x x (P + Pa) x stroke(m) x # strokes/min x 1000

4

= _______mm

stroke = _______mm
s/min = _______ x 2
P

=_______bar
54

Inertia
Example 1
a

m = 10kg
a = 30mm
j = ___?

J= m (kg) x a (m)
12
J= 10 x .03
12
J= 10 x .0009
12
J = .00075

55

Inertia
Example 2
a

J = ma x a + mb x b

3
J = 3 x .01 + 6 x .02
3

m = 9 kg
a = 10mm
b = 20mm
J = ___?

3
J = 3 x .0001 + 6 x .0004
3
3
J = .0001 + .0008
J = .0009
56

m = ________ kg
a

a = _________mm
b = _________mm
J = _________?

57

Valve identification
A(4)

EA P

B(2)

EB

58

Valve Sizing
The Cv factor of 1 is a flow capacity of one US
Gallon of water per minute, with a pressure drop
of 1 psi.
The kv factor of 1 is a flow capacity of one liter
of water per minute with a pressure drop of 1bar.
The equivalent Flow Section S of a valve is
the flow section in mm2 of an orifice in a
diaphragm, creating the same relationship
between pressure and flow.

59

Q = 400 x Cv x (P2 + 1.013) x P x

273
273 +

Q = 27.94 x kv x (P2 + 1.013) x P x

273
273 +

Q = 22.2 x S x

(P2 + 1.013) x P x

The normal flow Qn for other various flow capacity units is:
The Relationship between these units is as follows:

273
273 +
1 Cv =

1 kv =

981.5

68.85

1S=
54.44

1
0.07
0.055

14.3
1
0.794

18
1.26
1
60

Flow example

S = 35
P1 = 6 bar
P2 =5.5 bar
= 25C

Q = 22.2 x S x (P2 + 1.013) x P x 273

273 +

Q = 22.2 x 35 x (5.5+ 1.013) x .5 x

273 + 25

Q = 22.2 x 35 x
298

6.613 x .5

x 273

Q = 22.2 x 35 x 6.613 x .5
298

x 273

Q = 22.2 x 35 x 1.89 x .957

273

Q = 1405.383
61

Cv = ________

between 1 -5

P1 = ________bar
P2 = ________5 bar
= ________C

62

Flow capacity formulae transposed

Cv =

400 x

Kv =

27.94 x

S =

22.2 x

(P2 + 1.013) x P
(P2 + 1.013) x P
(P2 + 1.013) x P

63

Flow capacity example

Q = 750 l/min
P1 = 9 bar
P = 10%
S = ?

S =
Q
22.2 x (P2 + 1.013) x P
S =
750
22.2 x (8.1 + 1.013) x .9
S =
750
22.2 x 9.113 x .9
S =
750
22.2 x 2.86
S = 750
S = 11.81
63.49
64

Q = _________ l/min
P1 = _________ bar
P = _________%
Cv = _________ ?
65

Orifices in a series connection

S total

1
1 + 1 + 1
S1 S2 S3

Example
S1 = 12mm
S2 = 18mm
S3 = 22mm

S total

1
1 + 1 + 1
12 18 22

S total

1
1 + 1 + 1
144 324 484

S total

1
.00694 + .00309 + .00207

.0121

S total = 9.09
66

Cv = _________
Cv = _________
Cv = _________
Cv total = ________

67

S mm

60

50
40

7.5

30
6

20
10

0
0.02

0.05

0.1

0.2

0.5

5
10
Tube Length in
m
68

Tube
Dia.
(mm)
4 x 2.5
6x4
8x5
8x6
10 x 6.5
10 x 7.5
12 x 8
12 x 9

Material

N,U
N,U
U
N
U
N
U
N

Length
1m
0.5 m
1.86
6.12
10.65
16.64
20.19
28.64
33.18
43.79

3.87
7.78
13.41
20.28
24.50
33.38
39.16
51.00

Fittings
Insert type
straight
elbow
1.6
1.6
6
11
17
35
30
35
45

One Touch
straight
elbow
5.6

4.2

13.1

11.4

18

14.9

26.1

21.6

29.5

25

41.5

35.2

46.1

39.7

58.3

50.2

6
(9.5) 11
(12) 16
(24) 30
(23) 26
(24) 30
(27) 35

Total
0.5 m tube +
2 strt. fittings
1.48
3.18
3.72
5.96
6.73
9.23
10.00
13.65
12.70
15.88
19.97
22.17
20.92
25.05
29.45
32.06

Table 7.30 Equivalent Flow Section of current tube connections

69

dia. mm
8,10
12,16
20
25
32
40
50
63
80
100
125
140
160

50
0.1
0.12
0.2
0.35
0.55
0.85
1.4
2.1
3.4
5.4
8.4
10.6
13.8

100
0.1
0.23
0.4
0.67
1.1
1.7
2.7
4.2
6.8
10.8
16.8
21.1
27.6

Average piston speed in mm/s

150
200
250
300
400
500
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.36 0.46
0.6
0.72
1
1.2
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.6
2
1
1.3
1.7
2
2.7
3.4
1.7
2.2
2.8
3.7
4.4
5.5
2.6
3.4
4.3
5
6.8
8.5
4
5.4
6.8
8.1
10.8 13.5
6.3
8.4
10.5 12.6 16.8
21
10.2 13.6
17
20.4 27.2
34
16.2 21.6
27
32.4 43.2
54
25.2 33.6
42
50.4 67.2
84
31.7 42.2 52.8
62
84.4 106
41.4 55.2
69
82.8 110
138
Equivalent Flow Section in mm2

750
0.75
1.8
3
5
8.5
12.8
20.3
31.5
51
81
126
158
207

1000
1
2.4
4
6.7
11
17
27
42
68
108
168
211
276

Table 7.31 Equivalent Section S in mm2 for the valve and the tubing, for 6
bar working pressure and a pressure drop of 1 bar (Qn Conditions)

70

Flow Amplification

71

Signal Inversion

72

Selection

red

green

73

Memory Function

red

green

74

Delayed switching on

75

Delayed switching off

76

Pulse on switching on

77

Pulse on releasing a valve

78

Direct Operation and Speed Control

79

Control from two points: OR Function

Shuttle Valve

80

Safety interlock: AND Function

81

Safety interlock: AND Function

82

Inverse Operation: NOT Function

83

Direct Control

P
84

Holding the end positions

85


Cam valve

Semi Automatic return of a cylinder

86

Repeating Strokes

87

Sequence Control

2
88

A+

B+

A-

b0

B-

a1

start

ao

b1

Signals

a1

Start

Commands

A+

b1
B+

a0
A-

b0
B-

89

ISO SYMBOLS for AIR TREATMENT EQUIPMENT

Air Cleaning and Drying

Auto Drain

Air Cooler

Water
Separator

Filter

Refrigerated
Air Dryer

Filter /
Separator

Air Dryer

Air
Heater

Filter /
Multi stage
Separator
Micro Filter
w. Auto Drain

Heat
Exchanger

Lubricator

Pressure Regulation

Basic
Symbol

Adjustable
Setting
Spring

Pressure
Regulator

Regulator
with relief

Differential
Pressure
Regulator

Pressure
Gauge

Units

FRL Unit, detailed

FRL Unit,
simplified

90

Single Acting Cylinder,

Spring retract

Single Acting Cylinder,

Spring extend

Double Acting Cylinder

Double Acting Cylinder with

adjustable air cushioning

Double Acting Cylinder,

with double end rod

Rotary Actuator,
double Acting
91

Return Spring (in fact not an

operator, but a built-in element)
Roller Lever:

one-way Roller Lever:

Manual operators: general:

Lever:

Push Button:

Push-Pull Button:

Mechanical (plunger):

Detent for mechanical and manual operators (makes a monostable valve bistable):
Air Operation is shown by drawing the (dashed) signal pressure line to the side of
the square; the direction of the signal flow can be indicated by a triangle:
Air Operation for piloted operation is shown by a rectangle with a triangle. This
symbol is usually combined with another operator.
Direct solenoid operation

solenoid piloted operation

92

Manual
Operation

Closed
Input

Input
connected to Return
Output
Spring

Manual
Operation

Closed
Input

Input
connected to Return
Output
Spring

OR

Manually Operated,
Normally Open 3/2 valve
(normally passing)
with Spring
Return
Air Supply

Exhaust

Mechanical
Operation

Input
connected to
Output

Input closed,
Output
exhausted

Return
Spring

Mechanical
Operation

Input
connected to
Output

Input closed,
Return
Output
exhausted Spring

OR
Mechanically
normally closed 3/2
Operated,
(non-passing)
Valve with Spring Return
Air Supply

Exhaust

93

Manually operated Valves

detent, must correspond with valve position
no pressure

3/2, normally closed

no pressure

pressure

3/2, normally closed/normally open

3/2, normally open

monostable valves never operated

pressure

bistable valves: both positions possible

Electrically and pneumatically operated Valves

Air operated valves may be operated in rest
pressure

no pressure

Solenoids are never operated in rest

Mechanically operated Valves

No valve with index "1" is operated.
no pressure

pressure

an1

an1
All valves with index "0" are operated.
pressure

an

no pressure

an

94
0

First stroke of the cycle

A+

Last stroke of the cycle

A-

B+

B-

POWER Level
LOGIC Level
Memories,
AND's, OR's,
Timings etc.
Start

SIGNAL INPUT Level

Codes: a 0 , a1 , b0 , b , c0
1

and c1 .

95