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Why AI?
"AI can have two purposes. One is to use the power of
computers to augment human thinking, just as we use
motors to augment human or horse power. Robotics
and expert systems are major branches of that. The
other is to use a computer's artificial intelligence to
understand how humans think. In a humanoid way. If
you test your programs not merely by what they can
accomplish, but how they accomplish it, they you're
really doing cognitive science; you're using AI to
understand the human mind."
- Herb Simon
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1956
Dartmouth conference.
1981
1988
Interest in Subsymbolic AI
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Games
1950
1952-1962
1957
1967
1994
1997
2007
Checkers is solved
Summary
Games
AI in Role Playing Games now we need knowledge
Logic Theorist
Debuted at the 1956 summer Dartmouth conference, although
it was hand-simulated then.
Probably the first implemented A.I. program.
LT did what mathematicians do: it proved theorems. It proved,
for example, most of the theorems in Chapter 2 of Principia
Mathematica [Whitehead and Russell 1910, 1912, 1913].
LT began with the five axioms given in Principia
Mathematica. From there, it began to prove Principias
theorems.
Logic Theorist
LT used three rules of inference:
Substitution (which allows any expression to be substituted,
consistently, for any variable):
From: A B A, conclude: fuzzy cute fuzzy
Logic Theorist
In about 12 minutes LT produced, for theorem 2.45:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
(p q) p
A (A B)
p (p q)
(A B) (B A)
(p (p q)) ((p q) p)
(p q) p
Q. E. D.
Logic Theorist
The inference rules that LT used are not complete.
The proofs it produced are trivial by modern standards.
For example, given the axioms and the theorems prior to it, LT
tried for 23 minutes but failed to prove theorem 2.31:
[p (q r)] [(p q) r].
LTs significance lies in the fact that it opened the door to the
development of more powerful systems.
Mathematics
1956
1961
1967
Macsyma
Discovery
AM discovered:
Goldbachs conjecture
Unique prime factorization theorem
Why?
Why do we need it?
Find me stuff about dogs who save peoples lives.
Two beagles spot a fire.
Their barking alerts
neighbors, who call 911.
How can we represent it and use it?
How can we acquire it?
What is a Concept?
Lets start with an easy one: chair
Chair?
Chair?
Chair?
Chair?
Chair?
Chair?
Chair?
Chair?
Chair?
Chair?
Chair?
Chair?
Chair?
Chair?
Chair?
The bottom line?
Do we believe this?
Concept Acquisition
Pat Winstons program (1970) learned concepts in the
blocks micro-world.
Concept Acquisition
The arch concept:
Reasoning
We can describe reasoning as search in a space of
possible situations.
Breadth-First Search
Depth-First Search
But suppose that each time we end a path, we start over at the
top and choose the next path randomly. If we try this long
enough, we may eventually hit a solution. Well call this
The British Museum Algorithm or
The Monkeys and Typewriters Algorithm
http://www.arn.org/docs2/news/monkeysandtypewriters051103.htm
Fly to A $600
Fly to B $800
Stay D $200
Stay E $250
(800)
(850)
Total cost
(1200)
Fly to C $2000
Problem Reduction
Goal: Acquire TV
Steal TV
Earn Money
Buy TV
Hill Climbing
Problem: You have just arrived in Washington, D.C.
Youre in your car, trying to get downtown to the
Washington Monument.
Is A good enough?
Choose winning lottery numbers
Is A good enough?
Choose winning lottery numbers
Get the cheapest travel itinerary
Clean the house
Expert Systems
Expert knowledge in many domains can be captured as rules.
Dendral (1965 1975)
If: The spectrum for the molecule has two peaks at masses x1 and
x2 such that:
x1 + x2 = molecular weight + 28,
x1 -28 is a high peak,
x2 28 is a high peak, and
at least one of x1 or x2 is high,
Then: the molecule contains a ketone group.
Ketone group:
Expert Systems
1975
eXpertise2Go: http://www.expertise2go.com/
AcquiredIntelligence: http://www.aiinc.ca/demos/
(whales, graduate school)
SYSTEM-GENERATED ANSWER:
# What are the products of the given decomposition reaction?
By definition, oxidation-reduction reactions occur when electrons are
transferred from the atom that is oxidized to the atom that is reduced. We need to
look for changes in the oxidation states of the elements in the reaction.
In the reactants, the oxidation state(s) of the element Na is/are (1). In the
product, the oxidation state(s) is/are (0).
Therefore, the reaction causes a change in oxidation state.
Therefore, this is an oxidation reduction reaction.
By definition, a Binary Ionic-Compound Decomposition Reaction occurs when
a binary ionic compound is heated.
Therefore, this reaction is a Binary-Ionic Compound Decomposition reaction.
In general, a Binary Ionic-Compound Decomposition Reaction converts a
binary ionic-compound into basic elements.
In this reaction, NaN3 reacts to produce Na and N2.
# The products of the decomposition reaction are: