Liquid Mixing Fundamentals

Special Topics - Modules in
Pharmaceutical Engineering
ChE 702
Liquid Mixing
Fundamentals
Piero M. Armenante
2008
Instructional Objectives of
This Section
By the end of this section you will be
able to:
Identify the geometric, physical and
dynamic variables of importance for the
analysis of mixing in a stirred tank
Assess the relative importance of those
variables
Quantify the power dissipation, pumping
effects, and blend time in a mixing vessel
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Summary
Basic Rheology
Power Dissipation
Impeller Pumping Effects
Blend Time in Stirred Tanks
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Basic Rheology
Basic Rheological Concepts

Consider a fluid contained between
two plates separated by a distance y.
One plate is set in motion parallel to
the other, with velocity vx.
For many fluids it has been found
experimentally that the force applied
to the plate is directly proportional to
vx and inversely proportional to y.
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Basic Rheological Concepts

vx=v
y
x
vx=0
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Newtons Law of Viscosity

Mathematically:
Force F
vx 0
v x
constant

Area
A
y
y
i.e.:
yx
dv x

yx
dy
This constitutes Newtons Law of

Viscosity.
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Newtons Law of Viscosity

Definitions
Shear Stress: yx
Shear rate:
yx
dv
dy
(Dynamic) Viscosity:
Kinematic Viscosity:
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Newtonian Fluids
Newtonian fluids are fluids having
constant viscosity.
xy
Increasing
Viscosity
xy
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Dynamic Viscosities of
Various Fluids
Fluid
Gases
Viscosity
(centipoise, cP)
~ 0.001
Organics
<1
Water
~1
Kerosene
~10
Lubricants
~100
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Dynamic Viscosities of
Various Fluids
Fluid
Glycerol
Viscosity
(centipoise, cP)
~1000
Corn Syrup
~10,000
Molasses
~100,000
Molten Polyethylene
~1,000,000
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Focus of This Section
Only the mixing behavior

of Newtonian fluids, and,
more specifically, liquids,
will be examined in this
section.
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Schematic of a Stirred Tank
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Important Variables in the

Analysis of Mixing Phenomena
The variables of importance in the
analysis of mixing phenomena in
stirred tanks can be classified as:
geometric variables
physical variables
dynamic variables
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Geometric Variables
Geometric variables include the
geometric characteristics of:
tank (shape, sizes)
shaft
liquid height
baffles (shape, size, position)
impellers (type, dimensions, position)
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Geometric Variables: Tank,

Shaft, and Liquid Height
Tank shape (e.g., cylindrical)
Tank bottom shape (e.g., dish, flat)
Internal diameter, T
Internal height, HT
Shaft diameter
Shaft length
Liquid height, H (or Z)
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Geometric Variables: Baffles

Number of baffles, nB
Shape (e.g., rectangular)
Baffle width, B
Baffle height (e.g., full, half)
Baffle thickness
Gap between baffles and tank wall
Gap between baffles and tank bottom
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Geometric Variables:
Impellers
Number of impellers, n
Impeller type (e.g., disc turbine)
Diameter, D
Blade angle
[Pitch, p]
Blade width (height), w
[Blade width projected across the
vertical axis, wb]
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Geometric Variables:
Impellers (continued)
Clearance off the tank bottom measured
from the midpoint, C
[Clearance off the tank bottom measured
from the impeller bottom, Cb]
Spacing between impellers, S
Disc diameter (disc turbines)
Blade thickness
Hub diameter
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Physical Variables
Liquid density, or L
Liquid rheology (e.g., newtonian,
non-netwonian, shear-thinning, etc.)
and corresponding parameters (e.g.,
power law exponent)
Dynamic viscosity,
[Kinematic viscosity, (= /)]
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Dynamic Variables
Impeller rotational (agitation) speed, N
Impeller angular velocity,
Impeller tip speed, vtip
Torque,
Power dissipation (consumption), P
Impeller pumping flow, Q
Gravitational acceleration, g
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Relationship Between N,
and Vtip
The agitation speed, N, must be expressed
in revolutions per unit time such as:
revolutions per minute (rpm)
revolutions per second (rps)
The tip speed, vtip, is not independent of N

but it is related to N as follows (with in
rad/s, N is in rps, D in m, vtip in m/s):
vtip
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D
R 2 N N D
2
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Power Dissipation in Low

Viscosity Liquids in Stirred
Tanks
This Section
able to:
Calculate Re, Fr in stirred tanks
Distinguish agitation regimes
Calculate the power dissipated by an
impeller from available power numbers
Calculate the power dissipation as a
function of operating variables
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Turbulence and Mixing

Turbulent flows are associated with
rapid, apparently random
fluctuations of all three components
of the local velocity vector with time
To this day turbulence is still a
relatively poorly understood
phenomenon
Many mixing phenomena are
associated with turbulence
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Velocity Fluctuations in
Turbulent Flow
v(t)
t
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Turbulent Flow
In a turbulent flow, pulsations
consisting of disorderly displacement
of fluid bodies (eddies), are
superimposed on an average flow.
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Isotropic Turbulence
In isotropic turbulence all the
fluctuation components are equal,
and there is no correlation between
the fluctuations in different directions
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Energy Cascade in Isotropic

Turbulent Flow
During the process of energy
transfer and ultimate decay in a
turbulent system the largest eddies
receive fresh kinetic energy from an
outside source (e.g., an impeller) and
pass it on to smaller eddies that are
produced as a result of the instability
of the primary eddies
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Turbulent Flow
During this process smaller and
smaller eddies are generated
One can conceptually introduce an
eddy Reynolds Number:
Reeddy
eddy veddy
inertial forces
viscous forces
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Turbulent Flow
As long as Reeddy>>1 no viscous
dissipation will occur, and the kinetic
energy will simply be transferred to
smaller and smaller eddies
However, at Reeddy~1 viscous forces
will begin to dominate
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Turbulent Flow
For Reeddy<<1, the eddy will not
break up and the eddy kinetic energy
will be transformed into heat by the
viscous forces (energy dissipation).
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Turbulent Flow
Such a transition occurs at the
Kolmogoroffs length scale, equal to:
1
4
where is the power dissipated per unit

mass and is the kinematic viscosity.
k is the size of the smallest eddy in
the turbulent fluid
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Energy Cascade: Summary

Big whorls have little whorls
That feed on their velocity,
And little whorls have lesser whorls
And so on to viscosity.
Lewis F. Richardson
(1881-1953)
The poem summarizes Richardson's 1920 paper The Supply of
Energy from and to Atmospheric Eddies.
(A play on Jonathan Swift's "Great fleas have little fleas upon their backs to bite 'em,
And little fleas have lesser fleas, and so ad infinitum." (1733))
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Energy Cascade: Summary
Big whirls have little whirls,

That feed on their velocity,
Little whirls have smaller whirls,
And so on to viscosity.
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Power Dissipation
The power dissipated (or consumed)
by the impeller, P, is one of the most
important variables to describe the
performance of an impeller in a tank
P is a function of all the geometric and
physical variables of the system
Dimensional analysis can be used to
establish a relationship between P and the
independent variables
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Experimental Determination
of Power Consumption
The power dissipated by various
impellers under different conditions
has been experimentally obtained by
many investigators
Power data are available in the
literature (as non-dimensional Power
Numbers)
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It is relatively easy to determine the
cumulative overall power drawn by a
mixing system (including motor, drives,
seals, impellers, etc.)
It is much more difficult to determine the
power dissipated by the impeller alone
The power dissipated by the impeller in
the fluid is the only important power
dissipation parameter for the mixing
process
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The total power dissipation in a
system is given by:
Ptotal Pmotor Pgearbox Pseal Pimpeller
If one needs to know Pimpeller, Ptotal and
all other power dissipation sources
must be known under the dynamic
conditions in which the impeller
operates
This can be quite difficult
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A number of methods have been
used to measure the power
dissipated by impellers including:
electric measurements
dynamometers (coupled to the
motor or the tank)
strain gages and torquemeters
calorimetric measurements
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Example of Strain Gage System for

Power Measurement
Motor
Controller
Strain Gage Conditioner
Probe
Slip Ring
Tachometer
Interface
Strain Gages
Vessel
Computer
Armenante and Chang, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 1998.
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Power Dissipation
For the case in which a number of
geometric variables have been
defined (e.g., tank shape, tank
bottom, impeller type, baffle position,
etc.) the dependence between P and
the other variables can be written as:
P f (N, D,T , H,C, B,w , n, nB , g, , ,

impeller type )
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Power Dissipation
Using dimensional analysis
(Buckingham pi theorem) the previous
equation can be rewritten in nondimensional terms, as:
P
NP Po Ne
N 3 D 5
ND 2 N 2 D T H C w B
f
,
, , , , , , n, nB , impeller type
g D D D D T
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Power Number, NP (also

referred to as Po or Ne)
The impeller Power Number, Np
(also called Po, or the Newton
number, Ne) is a non-dimensional
variable defined as:
P
Np Po Ne
3 5
N D
If English units are used then:
P gc
Np Po Ne
N 3D5
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Power and Power Number

The power consumed by an
impeller and the Power Number are
related to each other via the
equation:
P NP N 3 D 5
where Np is a function of the impeller
type and the geometric and dynamic
characteristic of the system
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Impeller Reynolds Number

The impeller Reynolds number, Re,
2
defined as:
ND
Re
is a product of the non-dimensional

analysis.
Compare this Re with the Reynolds
number for a pipe:
vD
Re
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pipe
46
Impeller Reynolds Number

As usual, a physical interpretation can
be associated with the impeller
Reynolds number, Re. Accordingly:
Inertial forces
Re
Viscous forces
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Froude Number
Another non-dimensional number
arising from the non-dimensional
analysis is the Froude number, Fr,
defined as:
DN 2
Fr
g
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Froude Number
It can be shown that the Froude
number has the following physical
interpretation:
Inertial forces
Fr
Gravitational forces
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Power Equation
The power equation can be rewritten
P
as:
NP
N D
T H C w B
Re, Fr , , , , , , n, nB , impeller type

D D D D T
i.e.:
Re, Fr , geometric ratios,

P
NP
f
3 5
N D
impeller type
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Geometrical Similarity
Two systems are geometrically
similar if all corresponding
dimensional ratios are the same in
both systems
1.5 H
H
1.5 Cb
Cb
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1.5 D
1.5 T
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Geometrical Similarity
For geometrically similar systems:
T
T2 T1
constant
D
D2 D1
H
H 2 H1
constant
D
D2 D1
C
C2 C1
constant
D
D2 D1
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Power Equation for

Geometrically Similar Systems
For geometrically similar (including
same type of impeller) stirred tanks
and impeller all geometric ratios
are the same
Hence, NP does not change with
scale between tanks:
P
NP
f Re, Fr
3 5
N D
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Power Equation for Baffled,

Geometrically Similar Systems
When baffles are present, no vortex
occurs, i.e., the gravitational forces
become unimportant, and the Power
Number becomes independent of
Fr:
P
NP
f Re
3 5
N D
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Typical Power Curve for

Impellers in Baffled Tanks
Power Number, Po
100
10
Turbulent
1
10
100
1000
10000
100000
Reynolds Number, Re
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Power Curve:
Laminar Flow Regime
For Re<10 the flow in a baffled tank
is laminar
Theoretical and experimental evidence
shows that:
i.e.:
P
1
NP
3 5
N D
Re N D 2
P N 2D3
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Power Curve:
Laminar Flow Regime
In the laminar flow region the
power dissipated by an impeller is
given by:
P k" N D
2
where k is a proportionality constant

that depends on:
type of impeller
geometry ratios for the system
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Power Dissipation in the

Laminar Flow Regime
In the laminar regime power
dissipation is:
independent of the density of the liquid
directly proportional to the viscosity
strongly affected by the agitation speed
(PN2)
strongly affected by the impeller diameter
(PD3)
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Power Curve:
Transitional Flow Regime
For ~10<Re<~10,000 the flow regime
cannot be well characterized as either
fully laminar or fully turbulent
Depending on the type of impeller NP
may decrease with Re or decrease and
then increase with Re before entering
the turbulent flow regime
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Power Curve:
Turbulent Flow Regime
At high Reynolds numbers
(Re>10,000) the flow in a baffled
tank is turbulent
Theoretical and experimental evidence
shows that NP is independent of Re:
P
NP
constant
3 5
N D
i.e.:
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P N 3D5
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Power Curve:
In the turbulent flow region the
power dissipated by an impeller is
given by:
3 5
3
P k ' N D NP T N D
where k is a proportionality constant

equal to NPT, the asymptotic value of NP
that depends on:
type of impeller
geometry ratios for the system
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Power Dissipation in the

In turbulent regime, power
dissipation is:
independent of viscosity
directly proportional to the density of the
liquid
very strongly affected by the agitation
speed (PN3)
extremely sensitive to the impeller
diameter (PD5)
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Sensitivity of Power
Dissipation
In the turbulent regime P is very
sensitive to N and D
Examples:
a 10% increase in agitation speed, N
increases the power dissipated by 33%
a 20% increase in N increases P by 73%
a 10% increase in impeller diameter, D
increases the power dissipated by 61%
a 20% increase in D, increases P by
148%
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Sensitivity of Power
Dissipation
Because of the sensitivity of the power
dissipation to impeller diameter and
agitation speed small adjustments
to the impeller size or agitation
speed can rectify situations in which
an existing motor is underpowered
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Power Number Curves for

Various Impellers
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After Bates et al., Ind. Eng. Chem. Proc. Des. Devel. 1963
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Power Number Curves for 45 Pitched-Blade

Turbines (4-Blades) and HE-3 Impeller
After K. Myers and R. J. Wilkens, Personal Communication

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Equation for Power Number

Curves
An equation for Power Number as a
function of Re has been proposed:
A
Re
NP
B C
Re
1000 Re
where A, B, and C are coefficients that
depend on the type of impeller.
After John Smith, Unpublished Data
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Coefficients in Equation for

Power Number Curves
Impeller Type
Rushton Turbine
67
3.2
1.8
45 Pitched-Blade
Turbine (4-blades)
60 Pitched-Blade
Turbine (4-blades)
49
1.5
0.3
50
4.0
1.0
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Turbulent Power Number

Most low viscosity systems and
industrial stirred tanks operate in the
turbulent regime where NP is constant
A simple and meaningful way to compare
the power performance of various
agitators is to compare their turbulent
Power Numbers, NPT
The term Power Number is often used to
mean Turbulent Power Number
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Turbulent Power Numbers

Turbulent Power Numbers have been
obtained experimentally for many
impellers
Typically, NPT is measured for a
standard configuration of the agitation
system (H=T, D/T=1/3, C=D)
Data also exist for other non-standard
systems (e.g., NP as a function of C/D)
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for Various Impellers
NPT
Impeller Type
Flat-Blade Turbine (24 Blades)
9.8
Flat-Blade Turbine (12 Blades)
8.5
Gate
5.5
Disc Turbine (Rushton Type)
5.0
Smith Turbine (Concave-Blade

Turbine)
3.2
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Impeller Type
NPT
Glass-Lined Impeller
(Pfaudler Type)
MIG Impeller
0.75
Marine Propeller
0.35
Lightnin A310
0.30
0.65
Chemineer HE-3
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Effect of D/T Ratio on Power

Number for Disc Turbines
6
5
Ne
4
3
2
1
0
0.2
0.25
0.3
D/T
0.35
0.4
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Effect of D/T Ratio on Power Number for

Pitched-Blade Turbines
6-PBT; C
6-PBT; C
6-PBT; C
6-PBT; C
/D=0.24
/D=0.10
/T=0.25
/T=0.05
4-PBT; C
4-PBT; C
4-PBT; C
4-PBT; C
/D=0.84
/D=0.54
/T=0.28
/T=0.19
Ne
0
0.2
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0.25
0.3
0.35
0.4
0.45
0.5
0.55
D/T
Armenante et al., Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 1999.
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Effect of Impeller Clearance on

Power Number for Disc Turbines
6
5
Ne
4
3
D/T=0.352; H/T=1
D/T=0.264; H/T=1
D/T=0.352; H/T=2
D/T=0.264; H/T=2
Regression Curve
2
1
0
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1
2
3
4
5
6
Cb1/D Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 1998.
Armenante and Chang,
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Effect of Impeller Clearance on

Power Number for Disc Turbines
A correlation between the Power
Number and the impeller clearance off
the impeller bottom, Cb1, is:
Cb1
NP 4.93 3.44exp 5.38
C '1 w b
4.93 3.44exp 5.38

D 2D

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Effect of Cb on Power Number

for Disc Turbines
6
Po
5
4
D/T
0.217
0.261
0.348
3
2
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
Cb /T
Armenante and Uehara Nagamine, Chem. Eng. Sci., 1998.

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for Flat-Blade Turbines
3
D/T
0.217
0.261
0.348
2.8
Po
2.6
2.4
2.2
2
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
C /T
b Nagamine, Chem. Eng. Sci., 1998.

Armenante and Uehara
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Effect of Impeller Clearance on Power

Number for Pitched-Blade Turbines
3
6-PBT; D/T=0.264; H/T=1

6-PBT; D/T=0.264; H/T=2
4-PBT; D/T=0.343; H/T=1
4-PBT; D/T=0.507; H/T=1
Ne
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Cb1
/DInd. Eng. Chem. Res., 1999.
Armenante et
al.,
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for Pitched-Blade Turbines
3
Po
D/T
0.217
0.261
0.348
1
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
C /T
Armenante and Ueharab Nagamine, Chem. Eng. Sci., 1998.

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for HE-3 Impellers
D/T=0.348; T=0.292 m
D/T=0.391; T=0.292 m
D/T=0.304; T=0.584 m
D/T=0.348; T=0.584 m
D/T=0.391; T=0.584 m
0.5
0.45
Po
0.4
0.35
0.3
0.25
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
Cb /T
Armenante and Uehara
Nagamine, Chem. Eng. Sci., 1998.
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Power Dissipation in
Multiple Impeller Systems
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Power Dissipation in
Multiple Impeller Systems
If the H/T ratio is larger than 1.2-1.5
multiple impellers are typically used
The Power Number and the power
drawn by two impellers mounted on
the same shaft and spaced by a
distance S is not usually twice that of
the individual impeller
For large S, NP double 2 NP single
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Power Dissipation in Multiple

Disc Turbine Systems
2
H
S
D
T
Double DT
System
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Cb2
Cb1
S23
S13
1
S12
D
Cb2
Cb1
T
Triple DT
System
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Power Dissipation in Double

10
Ne
8
6
4
D/T=0.264
H/T=1
S/D=1.5
2
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
Cb1/D
0.8
1.2
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10
Ne
8
6
4
D/T=0.264
H/T=1
Cb1/D=1
2
0
0.5
S/D
1.5
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10
Ne
8
6
S/D=3
H/T=2
Cb1/D=1
Impeller Location
1
Total
2
Single Std.
2
0
0.1
0.2
D/T
0.3
0.4
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2
air entrainment
1.8
1.6
S/D
0.667
1
1.333
1.5
1.667
1.4
D/T=0.264
H/T=1
1.2
1
0.5
(a)
Cb1/D
1.5
4
S/D
2.5
Ne 2/Ne 1 = P2 /P1
Netot /Ne Single Std. = Ptot /PSingle Std.

D/T=0.264
H/T=1
0.667
1
1.33
1.5
1.667
1
air entrainment
0
(b)
0.5
Cb1/D
1.5
2.5
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2
air entrainment
1.8
D/T=0.264
H/T=1
1.6
Cb1 /D
1.4
1.2
1
0.5
(a)
S/D
1.5
0.167
0.333
0.5
0.667
1
4
Cb1 /D
2.5
Ne2/Ne 1 = P2 /P1

(b)
D/T=0.264
H/T=1
0
0.5
0.167
0.333
0.5
0.667
1
air entrainment
1
S/D
1.5
2.5
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90
Power Dissipation in Triple

16
14
12
D/T=0.264
H/T=2
S13/D=5
S12/D=2.5
Ne
10
8
Impeller Location
1
Total
2
Single Std.
3
4
2
0
0.5
(a)
Cb1/D
1.5
(b)
S12 /D
0.67
1
1.5
D/T=0.264
H/T=2
S13/D=5
0
0.5
Cb1/D
1.5
2.5
4
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91
Power Dissipation in Triple

70
Cb1/D=0.33
Pi /P tot (%)
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
(a)
S12/D
D/T=0.264
H/T=2
S13/D=5
70
60
Pi /P tot (%)
Cb1/D=0.5
50
40
30
20
10
0
(b)
S12/D
70
Cb1/D=1
Pi /P tot (%)
60
50
40
30
20
Impeller Location
1
2
10
0
(c)
S12/D
3
5
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92

Pitched-Blade Turbine Systems
5
Impeller Location
1
Total
2
Single Std.
Ne
3
2
D/T=0.264
H/T=1
S/D=1.5
1
0
0.2
5
0.4
Cb1/D
0.8
1.2
Ne
(a)
0.6
Impeller Location
1
Total
2
Single Std.
2
D/T=0.264
H/T=1
Cb1/D=1
1
0
0.5
(b)
S/D
1.5
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93
2.2
S/D
0.667
1
1.5
1.8
1.6
1.4
D/T=0.264
H/T=1
1.2
0
0.5
(a)
air entrainment
1
Cb1/D
1.5
D/T=0.264
H/T=1
2.5
Ne2/Ne 1 = P2 /P1
Ne tot /Ne Single Std. = Ptot /P Single Std.

1
S/D
0.667
1
1.5
air entrainment
0
(b)
0.5
Cb1/D
1.5
2.5
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94
2.2
air entrainment
D/T=0.264
H/T=1
1.8
1.6
1.4
Cb1 /D
0.333
0.5
1.2
1
0.5
(a)
S/D
1.5
0.667
1
2
2.5
Ne 2/Ne 1 = P2 /P1
Ne tot /Ne Single Std. = Ptot /P Single Std.

Cb1 /D
0.333
0.5
0.667
1
D/T=0.264
H/T=1
0
(b)
0.5
S/D
1.5
2.5
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95
Power Curves for Impellers in

Baffled and Unbaffled Tanks
Power Number, Po
100
Baffled Tank
10
Unbaffled Tank
1
10
100
1000
10000
100000
Reynolds Number, Re
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96
Power Curves for Impellers in

Baffled and Unbaffled Tanks
NP vs. Re plots for baffled systems
show that NP reaches an asymptotic
value at high Reynolds Number
NP vs. Re plots for unbaffled
systems show that NP keeps
decreasing with Re even at high
Reynolds Numbers
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Power and Torque

The power drawn by an impeller, P,
and the torque, , required by the
same impeller rotating at N are related
to each other by the following equation:
P 2 N
Remark: the same power dissipation

can be achieved using a higher torque
and smaller agitation speed or vice
versa
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98
Power Dissipation and

Operating Cost of Mixing
The power dissipated by the impeller,
P, is just the energy consumed by the
impeller per unit time, typically as
electric energy
Hence, the operating cost of the
mixing operation are proportional to
P:
Operating Cost P
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99
Torque and Capital Cost

The capital cost of a mixing
operation is significantly dominated by
the cost of the gear box
The cost of the gear box is directly
related to the its torque rating,
typically through an power law:
Capital Cost 0.8

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Important Mixing Operating

and Scale-up Parameters
Traditionally, mixing processes have
been scaled up and operated by
maintaining constant one the
following parameters:
Power per unit liquid volume in the
tank, P/V, or per unit liquid mass, P/ V
Torque per unit liquid volume in the
tank, /V, or per unit liquid mass, / V
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Power per Unit Volume

The power dissipated by the impeller
per unit liquid volume in the tank:
PV
is one of the most important
mixing parameters used in scale up
of mixing processes
The units for P/V are W/L, kW/m3 or
hp/1000 gal
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102
Power per Unit Mass

The power dissipated by the impeller
per unit liquid mass in the tank, :
V
is an alternative to the use of P/V (since the
only difference is the presence of )
is also widely used for scale-up
The units for are m2/s3
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Power per Unit Volume

Substituting for P and V gives:
P NP N 3 D 5
2
V / 4 T H
2
P NP 3 2 D D
N D
V /4
T H
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104
Power per Unit Volume at

Different Scales
The ratio of P/V at two different
scales is:
P / V large scale
P / V small scale
Piero M. Armenan
te
NP 3 2
N D
/ 4
NP 3 2
N D
/ 4
D

T
D D

T H
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large scale
small scale
105
Power per Unit Volume at

Different Scales
For geometrically similar systems:
D / T large scale D / H large scale NP large scale
D / T small scale D / H small scale NP small scale
and the P/V ratio becomes:
P / V large scale
P / V small scale
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3
3
large scale
ChE702
small scale
106
Scale-up Based on Constant

Power per Unit Volume (P/V)
If P/V is kept constant during
scale-up of geometrically similar
systems:
P / V large scale
P / V small scale
Piero M. Armenan
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D2
N
1
N
large scale
3
3
N 3 D2
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large scale
small scale
small scale
107
Tip Speed and Torque per

Unit Volume
For geometrically similar systems (for
which D T) in fully turbulent
regimes, or for the same system at
different agitation speeds, if the
torque per unit volume, /V, is kept
constant, then:
P
NP N D
NP N D
3
V 2 N V
N T
N D3
3
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108
Tip Speed and Torque per

Unit Volume
Simplifying:
vtip
N D
2
2
2
N D N D
3
V
ND

2
v tip
V
3
2
2
vtip
i.e., keeping constant the tip speed is

equivalent to keeping /V constant,
provided that the geometry of the systems
is similar and the flow is fully turbulent
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109
Typical P/V Values for

Common Mixing Processes
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110
Typical Tip Speed and P/V for

Various Mixing Equipment
Equipment
Turbines
Close Clearance
Impellers
High Shear
Dispersers
In Line Mixers
Vtip, m/s
(ft/s)
3-4
(10-12)
0.2-4
(0.6-12)
6-27
(20-80)
20-40
(60-120)
P/V, kW/m3
(hp/1000 gal)
0.2-0.6
(1-3)
4-?
(20-?)
10-14
(50-70)
20-40
(100-200)
After Arthur Etchells, Unpublished Data

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Additional Power Sources in

Stirred Tanks
In the vast majority of cases
mechanical power input in stirred
tanks is provided by impellers
Additional mechanical power
sources can also be present, and
their contribution should be
incorporated in power calculations
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112

Stirred Tanks
Mechanical power can be supplied
to stirred tanks via three primary
different sources, i.e.:
mechanical agitation (e.g., impellers)
power delivered by the expansion of a
compressed gas (e.g., gas dispersers,
diffusers)
power delivered by the kinetic energy of
a liquid (e.g., jets)
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113

Stirred Tanks
Important Remark: some mechanical
power sources, e.g., sparging a gas,
typically reduces the mechanical
power input by the impeller (e.g., a
gassed impeller)
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114
Power Input by Gas

Sparging
The mechanical power input
contribution of a gas sparged inside a
liquid is:
Pexpanding gas Qgas L g H
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115
Power Input of a Liquid Jet

The mechanical power input
contribution of a liquid jet injected
inside a liquid is:
Pliquid jet
Piero M. Armenan
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1
L Q jet v 2jet
2
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116
Total Mechanical Power Input

The total mechanical power input
to a liquid in a stirred vessel is:
PTotal
mechanical
Pimpeller Pexpanding gas Pliquid
jet
In the presence of a sparged gas:
Pgassed impeller Pungassed impeller
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117
Impeller Pumping Effects
This Section
able to:
Distinguish the flow patterns generated
by different impellers under different
operating conditions
Calculate the impeller discharge flow
from available flow numbers
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119
Impeller Pumping Action

Both radial and axial impellers exert a
pumping action within the tank
The mixer can then be regarded as a
caseless pump
Different types of impellers produce
different pumping actions resulting in
the establishment of fluid flow
circulation patterns inside the tank
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120
Vortices Generated by
Impeller Blades
Both radial and axial impellers
produce strong vortices behind them
These vortices are primarily
responsible for a number of
mixing phenomena, including
bubble and droplet breakup, rapid
mixing of homogeneous fluids, and
power dissipation
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121
Vortices Generated by a Disc

Turbine
Blade
Disc
Ulbrecht and Patterson, Mixing of Liquids by Mechanical Agitation, 1985.

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122
Vortices Generated by a Disc

Turbine
A balanced vortex
pair develops
behind a Rushton
turbine blade,
conveying away
turbulent energy
Source: John Smith, Mixing XX
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123
Vortices Generated by a
Pitched Blade Turbine
Ulbrecht and Patterson, Mixing of Liquids by Mechanical Agitation, 1985.

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124
Vortices Generated by a
Pitched Blade Turbine
The single line
vortices from
pitched blade or
hydrofoil impellers
are less intense
that those
generated by the
flat blade of a
Rushton turbine
Source: John Smith, Mixing XX
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125
Flow Pattern for Axial

Axial impellers tend to pump
downward or upward, depending
on the direction of rotation
Downward pumping impellers
produce an axial (or angled) main
flow that:
impinges on the tank bottom first
moves upwards near the tank wall
converges radially inwards, and then
returns to the impeller to feed it
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126
Flow Pattern for a Typical

Axial Impeller
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127
Flow Pattern for Radial

Radial impellers pump the liquid
radially, forming a radial jet
If C/T is sufficiently high, as the
liquid jet impinges on the tank wall it
splits upwards and downwards
Both upward and downward flows
move vertically first, converge
radially inwards, and then return to
the impeller to feed it (doubleeight flow pattern)
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128

Radial Impeller (high C/T)
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129
Flow Pattern for Radial

If C/T is low, the liquid jet impinging on
the tank wall only forms an upward
flow that first moves vertically near the
wall, then converges radially inwards, and
returns to the impeller to feed it (singleeight flow pattern)
In the single-eight regime the lower
circulation patter is suppressed
because of the proximity with the tank
bottom
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130

Radial Impeller (low C/T)
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131
Impeller Clearance and Flow

Pattern Change with Disc Turbines
For disk turbines a flow transition
from double-eight to singleeight regimes occurs when the C/T
ratio drops below a specific value:
For C/T >0.2 double-eight flow
pattern
For 0.16<C/T<0.2 either flow pattern
can exist
For C/T <0.16 single-eight flow
pattern
Armenante et al., Can. J. Chem. Eng., 1998.
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132
Impeller Clearance and Flow Pattern

Change with Flat-Blade Turbines
Also for flat-blade turbines the flow

pattern changes from double-eight
to single-eight regimes as C/T
varies.
For C/T >0.25 double-eight flow
pattern
For 0.20<C/T<0.25 either flow pattern
can exist
For C/T <0.20 single-eight flow
pattern
Armenante et al., Can. J. Chem. Eng., 1998.
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133
Velocity Flow Field in a

Stirred Tank
Akiti and Armenante, MIXING XVII, 1999.
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134
Experimental Velocity
Measurement
Local velocity measurements inside
a stirred tank are generally difficult
Techniques include:
laser-Doppler velocimetry (LDV)
hot-wire anemometry
whole flow visualization
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135
Laser-Doppler Velocimetry
(LDV) System
Motor
Color Separator
Box
Laser
Mixing Vessel
Control
Volume
Beam Expander and
Transmitting Lens
y
Transmitting Optical
Train
Photodetectors
and Frequency Shifters
Traversing
Apparatus
Multicolor
Receivers
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Computer and Data

Acquisition System
ChE702
136
Impeller Discharge Flow

The pumping action of an impeller
results in a discharge flow rate out
of the impeller region, Qout, balanced
by an incoming flow toward the
impeller (inflow rate= Qin). Since mass
is conserved it must be that:
Qin Qout Q
where Q is the discharge flow rate
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137
Cylindrical envelope to determine

flow out of impeller region
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138

The impeller discharge flow rate, Q,
can be obtained by summing up the
outflow contributions from all the
surfaces of the cylinder enveloping the
impeller:
Q Qout axial
lower face
Piero M. Armenan
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Qout axial
upper face
ChE702
Qout radial
139

Q
r D / 2
r 0
vz
out z w / 2
r D / 2
r 0
Piero M. Armenan
te
2 r dr
vz
out z w / 2
z w / 2
z w / 2
vr
2 r dr
out r D / 2
ChE702
D dz
140
Flow Number (or Pumping

Number) NQ
In order to make the impeller
discharge flow rate non-dimensional
one can define the Flow Number, or
Pumping Number, NQ:
Q
NQ
N D3
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141
Turbulent Flow Numbers

The Flow Number is to the discharge
flow rate what the Power Number is to
power
Turbulent Flow Numbers, NQT (or
simply NQ) have been obtained
experimentally for many impellers
Typically, NQ is measured for a
standard configuration of the
agitation system (H=T, D/T=1/3, C=D)
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142
Flow Numbers for Various

Piero M. Armenan
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143
Flow Numbers for 45 PitchedBlade Turbines (4 Blades)

Piero M. Armenan
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144
Flow Numbers for HE-3

Impellers

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145
Relationship Between Power

and Flow
In a number of industrial cases it may
be advantageous to use impellers that
produce significant circulation within the
tank, but consume little power.
To determine the optimal impeller
design and operation the following ratio:
Q P
should be maximized.
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146
Relationship Between Power

and Flow
For a fixed impeller geometry it is:
NQ N D
NQ 1
Q
1

3
5
P NP N D
NP N D 2
i.e.:
Q NQ 1
2
P
NP vtip
2
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147
NQ/NP for Various Impellers

in Baffled Tanks
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148
Variation of Flow and Power

Dissipation
Most impellers have flow numbers in
the relatively narrow range of 0.4-0.9
(typically 0.5-0.8), i.e., their ability
to pump is of the same order of
magnitude
The same impellers have power
numbers ranging between 0.25 and 6,
a much wider range
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149

Dissipation
Impellers with blades oriented parallel to
the shaft produce radial flow, and have
high power dissipation rates although
their pumping action is significant
As a consequence, their NQ/NP ratios is
low
Radial impellers generate significant
turbulence and produce high shear
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150

Dissipation
Impellers with blades forming a
(small) angle with the plane of
rotation produce axial flow, and
have relatively low power
dissipation rates although their
pumping action is also significant
As a consequence, their NQ/NP ratios
will be high
Axial impellers generate less
turbulence and shear
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151
Optimization Strategies to
Maximize Pumping Efficiency
To maximize pumping efficiency
(i.e., maximize the Q/P ratio):
choose impellers with high NQ/NP ratios
if capital cost must be minimized select
impellers with the same vtip (=ND) but
lower D, since this decreases N and
hence the torque (=P/2N) [recall that
the cost of the gear box is proportional
to the torque]
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152
If a specific flow rate Q must be
achieved then, by rearranging it is:
P
Q NQ
NP
P
1
NQ
4
N5
NP
1
3
To lower P at constant Q one can lower

N while increasing D. This approach
decreases the operating cost ( P).
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153
If a specific power input P must be
maintained then, by rearranging it is:
P NP
N
Q
N NP
N
Q
4
1
D4
To increase Q at constant P one can

lower N while increasing D. This
approach increases the capital cost
(proportional to the torque =P/2N).
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154
The preceding analysis is valid if NP
and NQ are constant. This is correct if
the flow is fully turbulent.
Changing the D/T ratio usually has
little influence on NP and NQ provided
that it is not too small or large (0.25<
D/T <0.7) [Too large a D/T ratio
chokes the recirculation flow].
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te
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155
Circulation Time
One can define the circulation time,
tcirc, as:
t circ
tcirc is a measure of how long it takes

the impeller to pump the same
volume of liquid as that contained in
the tank (V=Qtcirc)
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te
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156
Circulation Time
The circulation time, tcirc, is directly
related to how long it takes:
a small, neutrally buoyant tracer particle
to pass consecutively through the
same region (e.g., the impeller region)
a tracer to produce two consecutive
concentration peaks in the region
where the detector is
The blend time is typically a multiple

of the circulation time
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te
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157
Blend Time in Stirred Tanks
This Section
able to:
Describe the concepts of blend time and
degree of uniformity and how the can be
determined in the lab
Calculate the blend time for any desired
degree of uniformity in a mixing tank
Determine the blend time as a function of
geometry and operating parameters
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159
Blend Time
(Mixing Time)
If a miscible tracer is added to a
homogenous liquid in an agitated tank the
local concentration (measured with a
detector) fluctuates with time
The amplitude of the concentration
fluctuations will decrease with time
Eventually the tracer concentration will
become completely uniform in the tank
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160
Blend Time
Blend Time (also referred to as
Mixing Time) is the time it takes
the tracer-liquid system to reach a
desired (and pre-defined) level of
uniformity
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161
Blend Time Facts

Blend time and the achievement of a
homogeneous state can be critical in
some operations (e.g., fast chemical
reactions)
In any real mixing tank, blend time
is never zero
Homogeneous phases do not mix
instantaneously!
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162
of Blend Time
Detection of tracer can be
accomplished with a variety of
techniques including:
acid-base indicators (e.g., pH meters)
ion-specific electrodes
electric conductivity meters
thermometers
refractometers (for refractive index)
light adsorption meters
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163
of Blend Time
A tracer is typically added to the tank
(typically at the surface)
The concentration of the tracer is
determined at one or more locations
in the tank as a function of time
Piero M. Armenan
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164
of Blend Time
Tracer
Sensor
Piero M. Armenan
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165
Concentration Fluctuations at
Sensor and Experimental Blend
Time
C
CFinal
t
Piero M. Armenan
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166
Time
C
C90%
CFinal
t
Piero M. Armenan
te
t90%
ChE702
167
Time
C
C95%
CFinal
t95%
t
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168
Equations for the Determination

of Blend Time
Here, two approaches/equations for the
determination of the blend time will be
presented:
Approach 1: Fasano, Bakker, and
Penneys approach
Approach 2: Grenvilles approach
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169

of Blend Time
Approach 1
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170
Blend Time and

Non-Uniformity
The level of non-uniformity (or
unmixedeness) X is defined as:
CFinal C t
X (t )
CFinal Co
where Co and CFinal are the initial and

final tracer concentrations in the liquid
Before the tracer addition (t=0) C=Co
and X=1; for t, C=CFinal and X=0
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171
Non-Uniformity vs. Time

X(t)=(CFinal - C(t))/CFinal - Co)
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1
0
10
t (s)
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172

1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1
0
10
t (s)
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173

1
0.8
exp(-kt)
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-exp(-kt)
-0.8
-1
0
10
t (s)
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174

p(t )
1
0.8
exp(-kt)
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-exp(-kt)
-0.8
-1
0
10
t (s)
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Mixing Rate Constant, k

For long enough times the value of
X(t) oscillates while decaying
exponentially
These damped oscillations are
enveloped between an upper and
lower decaying exponential curves
(X=e-kt and X=-e-kt)
The parameter k is called the mixing
rate constant (in min-1)
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Mixing Rate Constant, k

The greater the k value is:
the faster the oscillations will die out
the faster blending will be
the shorter the mixing time will be
The extent of the damping effect

will depend on the geometric (e.g., D,
T, H) as well as dynamic (e.g., N)
variables
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Non-Uniformity Peaks
The absolute values of the height of
the oscillation peaks, p(t), in the Xt curve will determine whether a
required level of homogeneity has
been achieved
The values of p(t) can be found from:
p(t ) max X t e k t
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Non-Uniformity Peaks
p(t) determines the level of nonhomogeneity (non-uniformity)
One can arbitrarily decide when
sufficient uniformity has been achieved
by selecting a small enough p(t) value
(e.g., 0.05, implying that the largest
fluctuation is 5% of the final X value)
For t p(t) 0
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Degree of Uniformity, U
It is convenient to introduce the
Degree of Uniformity, U, defined as:
U t 1 p(t )
where U is just the complement of p

(for example, if p=0.05, U=95%,
implying that the liquid is 95%
homogeneous).
Then:
k t
U t 1 e
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Blend Time and Degree of

Uniformity
ln1 U
tU
k
Then:
This equation relates the blend time,

tU, required to achieve a desired level
of U, to U and k. For example, the
time required to achieve 99%
homogeneity is:
t99
Piero M. Armenan
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ln1 0.99 4.6
k
k
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181
Blend Times to Achieve

Various Us
It is possible to establish a
relationship (independent of k)
between a two blend times to
achieve two different degrees of
uniformity (e.g., U and U):
tU
ln1 U / k ln1 U
tU ' ln1 U ' / k ln1 U '

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182

Various Us
Example: tU for a specific U and that
for 99% (t99):
tU
ln1 U
ln1 U
t99 ln1 0.99

4.6
Example, it takes twice as long to

blend to U=99.99% that to blend to
99% t 99.99 ln1 0.9999
t 99
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ln1 0.99
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183

Various Us
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184
Mixing Rate Constant

In order to calculate tU one needs to
determine the mixing rate constant, k
As usual, dimensional analysis is
used:
k f (N, D,T , H,C, B,w , n, nB , g, , ,

impeller type)
Piero M. Armenan
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185

Then:
ND 2 N 2 D T H C w B
,
, , , , , , n, nB ,
k
f
g D D D D T
N
impeller type
For baffled, fully turbulent systems Re

and Fr have no effect
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186

Although all geometric variables could
play a role only a few are important.
The most important geometric
variables affecting k/N are T, H, D,
and the impeller type. Hence:
k
T H
f , ,impeller type
N
D D
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187

The equation for k/N is then:
b
k
D T
a
N
T H
0.5
where the parameters a and b depend

on the type of impeller used
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188
Parameters to Calculate the

Impeller
Disc Turbine
1.06
2.17
Flat-Blade Turbine
(4 blades)
45 Pitched-Blade
Turbine (4 blades)
Marine Propeller
1.01
2.30
0.641
2.19
0.274
1.73
Chemineer HE3
0.272
1.67
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189
Blend Time Equation for

Fixed Geometries
For a fixed set of geometric variables
i.e.:
same impeller
same D/T ratio
same H/T ratio
k/N =constant
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Fixed Geometries
If k/N is constant:
ln1 U ln1 U / N
tU
k
k /N
i.e.:
tU N constant
(for same impeller, same D/T ratio,

same H/T ratio), irrespective of
scale
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191
Blend Time Equations for

H/T=1, T/D=3
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192
Blend Time and Impeller Speed

The higher the agitation speed is the
shorter the blend time will be
For geometrically similar systems this
equation:
1
tU
does not change with scale

Geometrically similar small and large
vessels have the same blend time only if
the agitation speed N is the same at both
scales
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193

Fixed Geometries
From:
tU N constant
it follows that if mixing time is to
remain unchanged during scale-up
the agitation speed N must remain
constant provided geometric
similarity is maintained
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194
Effect of Other Factors on

Blend Time
The procedure outlined before can
be used to obtain the blend time tU for
the case in which:
the flow is turbulent
the viscosities of the added liquid
and the liquid in the tank are equal
the densities of the added liquid
and the liquid in the tank are equal
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195

Blend Time
Corrective factors can be applied to
tU to account for:
different flow regimes
viscosity differences between the
two liquids
density differences between the
two liquids
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196

Blend Time
The corrective factors can be applies as
follows:
tU Re; *;
fRe f * f tU Re ; * 1; 0
where:
f Re = corrective factor for the effect of Re
f* = corrective factor to account for the effect of
viscosity differences
f = corrective factor to account for the effect of
density differences
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197

Blend Time
tU (Re; *=1; =0) is the
standard tU (i.e., under fully turbulent
conditions, with an added fluid having
the same viscosity an density as the
liquid in the tank) calculated as outline
before;
tU (Re; *; ) is the mixing time
calculated to account for the effect of
Re, viscosity and density differences.
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198
Blend Time at Different

Reynolds Numbers
fRe is the correction factor to account for Re
effects when Re is below 10,000 and the
fluid is not fully turbulent. Remark: fRe =1
for Re>10,000.
Once tU has been calculated for Re >10,000
it is possible to obtain tU at other Reynolds
Number using the diagram obtained by
Norwood and Metzner (1964).
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199
Blend Time at Different

Reynolds Numbers
fRe=tU/tU (turbulent)
1000
100
10
0.1
10
100
1000
10000
100000
1E+006
Re
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200
Effect of Viscosity Ratio on

Blend Time
f* is the correction factor to account for
viscosity effect, when the viscosity of
the added fluid is greater than that of
the liquid in the tank.
In order to calculate f* the viscosity
ratio:
added liquid
*
liquid in the tank
must be determined first.

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201
Effect of Viscosity Ratio on

Blend Time
Fasano et al., Chem. Eng., 1994

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202
Effect of Density Difference

on Blend Time
f is the correction factor to account
for the effect of differences in densities
between the added liquid an the liquid
in the tank.
If the density difference is zero
(standard case) f =1.
In order to calculate f the Richardson
Number, Ri, must be calculated first.
Piero M. Armenan
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203

on Blend Time
To account for the effect of density
differences the Richardson Number is
introduced:
g H
Ri
2
2
L N D
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204

on Blend Time
Fasano et al., Chem. Eng., 1994

Piero M. Armenan
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205
Blend Time and Geometric

Similarity
In fully turbulent, geometrically similar
systems the equation below still holds:
tU N constant
This implies that blend time experiments
can be conducted in small scale
equipment to determine the above
constant, and that this equation can be used
for scale-up purposes
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206
Procedure to Calculate
Blend Time
The procedure to calculate tU is then:
set the desired value of U
fix D, T, H and the impeller type
set N
calculate k
calculate the standard blend time
correct this value to account for Re,
viscosity and density effects
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207
Scale-up and Blend Time

Scale-up based on blend time is
extremely costly to achieve since the
power consumption would increase
enormously. For constant N:
P V large scale
P V small scale
3
3
large scale
small scale
D large scale
small scale
This implies that P/V increases with the

square of the scale-up factor
Piero M. Armenan
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208

If P/V is kept constant during scaleup:
N 3 D 2 large scale
P / V large scale
P / V small scale
D2
1
N D
N D
3
small scale
large scale
small scale
Dsmall scale
N large scale Nsmall scale
large scale
Piero M. Armenan
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209

Recall that:
1
tU
N
If P/V is kept constant during scale-up of

geometrically similar systems:
Dlarge scale
tU large scale tU small scale
small scale
the blend time increases with the (linear)

scale factor raised to the 2/3 power
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210
Blend Time and Other Time

Scales
It is always important to make sure
that blend time is much shorter than
the other time scales that may be
important to the process
If blend time is longer than other
critical time scales (e.g., reaction
time) mixing could become the
limiting step, often inadvertently
Piero M. Armenan
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211
Blend Time in Small Tanks

and Large Tanks
Blend time is typically short in small
laboratory tanks, but much longer
in larger tanks
Processes that are not affected by
blend time at small scales (since
mixing is fast) could be limited by
poor mixing at larger scales since
blending the tanks contents typically
takes much longer
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212
Blend Time and Circulation

Time
An empirical mixing rule of thumb
states that:
Blend Time 4 t circ
V
4
Q
where the proportionality constant

(4) is often reported to be between 3
and 5 or even outside this range
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213

Time
From the definition of circulation time
(tcirc=V/Q) and Flow Number, NQ:
Q
NQ
3
ND
Q NQ N D
it follows that:
t circ
Piero M. Armenan
te
V
V

Q NQ N D 3
ChE702
214

Time
The relationship between tU and tcirc
can be obtained recalling that:
tU N constant
Then:
tU
t circ
Piero M. Armenan
te
N
D
Q
N
V
V
NQ N D 3
ChE702
215

Time
Finally:
2
NQ D
tU
4
D D
NQ
2
t circ / 4 T H
T H
3
For a given system, and for a preassigned level of uniformity, U, all the
factors on the right-hand side are
fixed. Hence tU/tcirc is constant
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216

Time
Example: Disk turbine in a standard
mixing system
NQ=0.8
D/T=D/H=1/3
If U=99% (=47) t99=5.3tcirc

If U=95% (=0.6547=30.5)
t95=3.5tcirc
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217

Time
Piero M. Armenan
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218

Time
Piero M. Armenan
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219

Time
The previous results confirm that the
blend time is typically a multiple
of the circulation time
tU/tcircis typically in the range 3-6 for
t95/tcirc and 4-9 for t99/tcirc
These results validate the empirical
mixing rule of thumb stating that
Blend Time 4 Circulation Time
Piero M. Armenan
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220

of Blend Time
Approach 2
Piero M. Armenan
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221
Blend Time Equation in

Turbulent Regime: Approach 2
For mixing in the turbulent regime
(Re>~10,000) Grenville (1992)
found:
1.5
0 .5
5.20 T
t 95N
1/ 3
Po D
0.33 < D/T < 0.50

C/T = 0.33
0.50 < H/T 1
Po = Impeller Power Number
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222

Various Us
Recalling that it is possible to calculate
tU knowing tU:
tU ' ln1 U ' / k ln1 U '
tU
ln1 U / k ln1 U
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223

Various Us
If U=95% is the reference degree of
homogeneity:
tU
ln1 U
ln1 U
t 95 ln1 0.95
2.996
For example:
t 99 ln1 0.99
1.537
t 95 ln1 0.95
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224
Blend Time Equation in

Turbulent Regime: Approach 2
For mixing in turbulent regime
(Re>~10,000) the Grenville equation
becomes:
1.74 ln1 U T
tU N

1/ 3
Po
D
1. 5
0 .5
0.33 < D/T < 0.50

C/T = 0.33
0.50 < H/T 1
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225
Blend Time for Turbulent Regime

with H/T=1, T/D=3: Approach 2
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226
Impeller Efficiency in Turbulent

Regime: Approach 2
From:
1.74 ln1 U T
tU N

1/ 3
Po
D
3 5
and:
P
Po N D
2
V / 4 T H
1 .5
it is:
Piero M. Armenan
te
1
3
1
3
1 T
tU T
D
ChE702
0 .5
Po N D
3
T
2
3
227
Impeller Efficiency in Turbulent

Regime: Approach 2
From the previous equation for turbulent
regime, it is:
all impellers of the same diameter are

equally energy efficient (i.e., achieve the
same tU at the same power input/mass)
shorter tU are achieved with larger
impellers at the same power input/mass
blend time is independent of fluid properties
when scaling at constant power
input/mass and similar geometry blend
time increases with the scale factor
raised to 2/3
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228
Blend Time Equation in Transitional

Regime: Approach 2
For mixing in the transitional regime
(~200<Re<~10,000) Grenville
(1992) found:
2
33,500 T
t 95N

2/3
Po Re D
0.33 < D/T < 0.50

C/T = 0.33
0.50 < H/T 1
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229
Blend Time Equation in Transitional

Regime: Approach 2
For mixing in transitional regime
(~200<Re>~10,000) the Grenville
equation becomes:
2
11,181ln1 U T
tU N

2/3
Po Re D
0.33 < D/T < 0.50

C/T = 0.33
0.50 < H/T 1
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230
Impeller Efficiency in Transitional

Regime: Approach 2
From:
11,181ln1 U T
tU N

2/3
Po Re D
3 5
3
5
and:
P
Po N D
Po N D
2
3
V / 4 T H
T
it is:
1
tU

Piero M. Armenan
te
2
3
2
3
T
T
D
ChE702
2
3
231
Impeller Efficiency in Transitional

Regime: Approach 2
From the previous equation for the
transitional regime, it is:
all impellers of the same diameter are equally

energy efficient (i.e., achieve the same tU at the
same power input/mass)
shorter tU are achieved with larger impellers at
the same power input/mass
blend time is proportional to viscosity and
inversely proportional to density
when scaling at constant power input/mass and
similar geometry blend time decreases with the
scale factor raised to 2/3 (however do not forget
that that Re increases with scale, and larger system
may no longer be in the transitional regime)
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232
Conclusions: Power, Flow and

Blend Times in Mixing Tanks
Under turbulent conditions, the power dissipated by
an impeller depends on:
agitation speed (PN3)
impeller size (PD5)
type of impeller (PNP)
density of the fluid (P)
Axial impellers and radial impellers generate
different circulation patterns
In general, axial impellers generate more flow per unit
of power dissipated than radial impellers
Blend time is inversely proportional to the impeller
agitation speed and is not generally significantly
affected by scale
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233

Liquid Mixing Fundamentals

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Liquid Mixing Fundamentals

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Special Topics - Modules in

Basic Rheological Concepts

Basic Rheological Concepts

Newtons Law of Viscosity

This constitutes Newtons Law of

Newtons Law of Viscosity

Focus of This Section

Only the mixing behavior

Schematic of a Stirred Tank

Important Variables in the

Geometric Variables: Tank,

Geometric Variables: Baffles

The tip speed, vtip, is not independent of N

Power Dissipation in Low

Turbulence and Mixing

Energy Cascade in Isotropic

Energy Cascade in Isotropic

Energy Cascade in Isotropic

Energy Cascade in Isotropic

Energy Cascade in Isotropic

where is the power dissipated per unit

Energy Cascade: Summary

Energy Cascade: Summary

Big whirls have little whirls,

Example of Strain Gage System for

Strain Gage Conditioner

Armenante and Chang, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 1998.

P f (N, D,T , H,C, B,w , n, nB , g, , ,

Power Number, NP (also

If English units are used then:

Power and Power Number

Impeller Reynolds Number

is a product of the non-dimensional

Impeller Reynolds Number

Re, Fr , , , , , , n, nB , impeller type

Re, Fr , geometric ratios,

Power Equation for

Power Equation for Baffled,

Typical Power Curve for

where k is a proportionality constant

Power Dissipation in the

where k is a proportionality constant

Power Dissipation in the

Power Number Curves for

Power Number Curves for 45 Pitched-Blade

After K. Myers and R. J. Wilkens, Personal Communication

Equation for Power Number

Coefficients in Equation for

Turbulent Power Number

Turbulent Power Numbers

Turbulent Power Numbers

Flat-Blade Turbine (12 Blades)

Disc Turbine (Rushton Type)

Smith Turbine (Concave-Blade

Turbulent Power Numbers

Turbulent Power Numbers

Effect of D/T Ratio on Power

Armenante and Chang, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 1998.

Effect of D/T Ratio on Power Number for

Effect of Impeller Clearance on

Effect of Impeller Clearance on

Armenante and Chang, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 1998.

Effect of Cb on Power Number

Armenante and Uehara Nagamine, Chem. Eng. Sci., 1998.