Unit 4b

Arguments In
Normal English
 30 Enthymemes

Enthymemes- Arguments that leave a statement unstated

because it is assumed.
Ex) You are not invited to the party because only girls are
invited.
1) Identify the conclusion. (No you are invited persons)
2) Consider the other statement (All invited persons are
girls)
3) Identify the major, minor, and middle terms (Major:
Invited persons; Minor: you; Middle: girls)
4) Use the remaining terms to state the assumed satement
(No you are girls)
 30 Enthymemes

EX) Tommorow is not Tuesday, therefore tomorrow we will

not have a test.
What are the terms?
What is the mood?
What is the figure?
What is the form?
 31 Hypothetical Syllogisms

Hypothetical: a statement that affirms an outcome based on

a condition (If P then Q)
Pure Hypothetical (can be invalid if in wrong figure)
If P (antecedent) then Q(consequent)
If Q then R
Therefore if P then R
PÛQ
Q ÛR
∴P ÛR
If I study then I will get good grades
If I get good grades then my parents will pay me 20
Euro
Therefore, if I study then my parents will pay me 20
 31 Hypothetical Syllogisms

Valid Mixed Hypothetical -uses both hypothetical and

categorical statements
Modus ponens-
PÛQ
P
∴Q
If P then Q
P
Therefore Q
If I study then I will get good grades
I study
Therefore I will get good grades.
 31 Hypothetical Syllogisms

Modus tollens-
PÛQ
~Q
∴ ~P
If P then Q
Not Q
Therefore not P
If I study then I will get good grades
I did not get good grades
Therefore I did not study.
 31 Hypothetical Syllogisms

Invalid Mixed Hypothetical -uses both hypothetical and

categorical statements incorrectly
(non sequitur- it does not follow)
Affirming the consequent fallacy-
PÛQ
Q
∴P
If P then Q
Q
Therefore P
If I study then I will get good grades
I got good grades
Therefore I studied.
 31 Hypothetical Syllogisms

Invalid Mixed Hypothetical -

Denying the antecedent fallacy
PÛQ
~P
∴~Q
If P then Q
Not P
Therefore not Q
If I study then I will get good grades
I did not study
Therefore I will not get a good grade
 31 Hypothetical Syllogisms

Counter examples:
If you were a gorilla, then you would have two legs.
You have two legs.
Therefore you must be a gorilla. (affirming the consequent)

If you were a gorilla, then you would have two legs.

You are not a gorilla.
Therefore, you do not have two legs. (denying the antecedent)
 32 Establishing Conclusions

It is often easier to find fallacies then to confirm

confirm form.
Still... Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4
MP PM MP PM
SM SM MS MS
AAA AEE AAI AAI
AAI AEO AII AEE
AII AOO EAO AEO
EAE EAE EIO EAO
EAO EAO IAI EIO
EIO EIO OAO IAI
 32 Establishing Conclusions

MAKING AN ARGUMENT- Dogs are mammals.

1. Put the statement to be established into categorical form:
All dogs are mammals.

2. Find a valid argument form (of the 24) that has the same
type of statement as the conclusion.
A so....just one choice AAA-I
3. Place the statement as the conclusion of the selected form of
sylogism, and fill in the terms, leaving the middle term blank.
All ___________ are mammals.
All dogs are _____________
Therefore, all dogs are mammals.
 32 Establishing Conclusions

MAKING AN ARGUMENT- Dogs are mammals.

4. Find a middle term that makes the premises true, thus
completing the argument.
All _haired animals__ are mammals.
All dogs are __haired animals___________
Therefore, all dogs are mammals.

Another example? Some killing of a person is not murder?