Understanding the Report

Process and Research Methods

Business Communication, 15e

Lehman and DuFrene

Report

Report is an orderly, objective

message used to convey
information from one
organizational area to another or
from one organization to another
to assist in decision making or
problem solving.

Characteristics of Reports
Reports are . . .

Generally requested by a
higher authority and often
travel upward in an
organization

Logically organized and

objective

Types of Reports

Formal vs. informal

Short vs. long
Informational vs.
analytical
Vertical vs. lateral
Internal vs. external
Periodic or scheduled
Functional

The Formal-Informal
Report Continuum

Proposals
A written description of how
one organization can meet the
needs of another.
Calls for Bids
Requests for Proposals

Using Proposals
Proposals are . . .

Used to show how one organization

can meet the needs of another

Often used to show how goods or

services can be provided

Usually issued in response to a

requests or a calls for bids

Used to make decisions about

issuing contracts for work

Classifications of Business
Proposals

Internal proposal: a report written to

justify or recommend courses of action

taken in the company
External proposal: a written description of
how one organization can meet the needs of
another by providing products or services
Solicited proposal: a proposal that is
invited and initiated
Unsolicited proposal: is prepared by an
individual or firm who sees a problem to
be solved and submits a proposal.

The Problem-Solving Process

1.

2.
3.

4.

Recognize and define the

problem
Select a method of solution
Collect and organize data
and document the sources
Arrive at an answer

Five Questions for

Limiting the Problem

What is it that I wish to find out?

Why is the information needed?

When must the report be completed?

Where is the study limited to?

Who will read and use the

information?

Identifying
Identifying the
the problem
problem clearly
clearly will
will
help
help with
with targeting
targeting research
research

Hypothesis
A statement to be proved or
disproved through research.
Example: Hypothesis: Productivity
will increase when skilled
manufacturing employees function as
members of production teams rather
than single units in production lines.

Null Hypothesis
The statement that no relationship
or difference will be found in the
factors being studied.
Example: Null hypothesis: No significant
difference will be found in productivity
between workers organized as teams and
workers as individual production line units.

Select a method of solution

Types of Secondary Research
Printed Sources
Electronic Sources

Objectives of Secondary
Research

Establish a point of departure

for further research

Avoid needless duplication of

costly research effort

Reveal areas of needed

research

Make a real contribution

to the
body of knowledge

Techniques for Using the

Internet Effectively

Choose your search engine

or database appropriately

Structure searches from

broad to specific

Use quotation marks for

literal topics

Look for pages that have

links to other sites

Be adaptable to access

Problems with Internet Resources

Resources are not always

accurate and reliable.

Certain uses of site information

may constitute copyright
violation.

Resources are not always

complete in terms of information or
updating.

Electronic periodicals are not always

subjected to same rigor as printed

Select a method of solution

Types of Primary Research

Observational research

Experimental research

Normative survey research

Research Sources
Primary Sources

Customer surveys
Market research
Operational
research
Historical research
Performance
observation
Product
development
Financial reports
Employee surveys

Secondary Sources

Newspapers
Magazines
Journals
Abstracts
Almanacs/fact
books
Books
Government
documents
Online sources

Generating Primary Data

Surveying
Develop questions, conduct trial.
Work in person or online.
Interviewing
Locate an expert.
Consider posting an inquiry to an Internet
newsgroup.
Prepare for the interview.
Maintain a professional attitude.
Prepare objective, friendly questions.
Watch the time.

Generating Primary Data

Observing

Be objective.
Quantify observations.

Experimenting

Develop rigorous research design.

Pay careful attention to matching
experimental and control groups.

Sampling: Help for the

Overwhelmed
Researcher
Eliminates
need to question
100 percent of population

Uses random group from

population to represent entire
population

Guidelines for Designing

Effective Questionnaires

Arrange items in a logical sequence

Ask for facts that can be recalled readily

Write clear, specific questions

Brief, easy-to-follow directions

Words with precise meanings

Short items related to one idea

No skip-and-jump instructions

Guidelines for Designing

Effective Questionnaires

(cont.)

Create an appealing format that is

easy-to-answer and tabulate
Do not force respondents to choose an
answer that does not apply to them

Provide all possible answers

Add undecided or other category

Avoid leading questions

Pilot test the questionnaire and revise
based on feedback

Common Item Types for Questionnaires

Open Question
What will you do to combat inflation?
Forced Choice
What is the one most important problem you . . .
Checklists
Check all that apply to you:
Male
Married
Female
Single
Rating Scale
Circle the number indicating how you feel about each
statement:
Disagree
Agree
Strongly
Agree
1
7

Ranking Scale
Please rank the following problems in order of importance.
Use 1 for most important, 2 for second most important, and
continue
until all are ranked.

Indicators of Effective
Research
Validity

Does the data measure what was intended?

Were instruments pilot tests?

Reliability

Are outcomes consistent (repeatable) over

time or independent samples?

Is sample size sufficiently large?

Common Errors in Data

Collection

Samples that are too small

Samples that are not representative

Poorly constructed data-gathering

instruments

Information that comes from biased

sources

Too little information

Too much information that is not

relevant

Avoid Plagiarism
The presentation of someone elses ideas or
words as your own

provide
a
citation
for
each dir
ect
quotatio
n

provide a
citation f
or
each pass
age
f ro m
someone
elses wo
rk

Why is accurate and complete

documentation of eminent
importance?

Gives credit where credit is due

(highly ethical conduct)

Protects writers against charges of

plagiarism

Supports statements and thus

increases credibility
Aids researchers in pursuing similar
research

What can you do to prepare

accurate and adequate
documentation?
Select a reference manual
to follow
Be consistent

Citation Methods

APA (American Psychological

Association) format:

Schiffman, J. (2011). MLA Handbook

for Writers of Research Papers (6th
ed.). New Delhi: Tata McGraw Hill.

Reducing Data
1. Evaluate the information for its
usefulness.
2. Reduce the useful information
through organization of notes and data
analysis.
3. Combine like information into
understandable form through the use
of tables, charts, graphs, and
summaries.

Common Errors in Data

Interpretation

Conforming results to prediction or

desire

Hoping for spectacular results

Comparing when commonality is absent

Assuming a cause-and-effect
relationship when one does not exist

Failing to consider important factors

Basing conclusions on lack of evidence

Assuming constancy of behavior

Keep in Mind
Common research terms:
Finding: A specific, measurable
fact from a research study.
Conclusion: Summation of major
facts and evidence derived from
findings.
Recommendation: A suggested
action based on your research.

Example

Finding: Nearly 75 percent of responding

recruiters indicated they were more likely to
hire a candidate who was involved in
extracurricular activities.
Conclusion: Active involvement in
extracurricular activities is an important jobselection criteria
Recommendation: Students should be
involved in several extracurricular activities
prior to seeking a job.

Exercise

A
walk in the
the park

Exercise

Exercise

Exercise

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Brown
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Purple
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Grey
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Orange
Pink