ENERGY CONVERSION ONE

(Course 25741)

Chapter Two
TRANSFORMERS
continued

Transformer Voltage Regulation

and Efficiency
Output Voltage of Transformer Varies with Load
Due to Voltage Drop on Series Impedance of Transformer
Equivalent Model
Full Load Regulation Parameter, compares output no-load
Voltage with its Full Load Voltage:
VS , N . L. VS , F . L.
100%
V.R. =
VS , F . L.
At no load VS= VP / a thus :
(VP / a ) VF . L.
100%
V.R.=
V
in per unit: V.R. =

VP , pu VS , FL , pu
VS , FL , pu

For Ideal Transformer V.R.=0

F . L.

100%

Transformer Voltage Regulation and

Efficiency
The transformer phasor diagram
To determine the voltage regulation of a transformer:
The voltage drops should be determined
In below a Transformer equivalent circuit referred to
the secondary side shown:

Transformer Voltage Regulation

and Efficiency
since current which flow in magnetizing branch is small
can be ignored
Assuming secondary phasor voltage as reference VS with
an angle of 0
Writing the KVL equation:

VP
VS Req I S jX eq I S
a

From this equation the phasor diagram can be shown:

At lagging power factor:

Transformer Voltage Regulation and

Efficiency
If power factor is unity, VS is lower than VP so
V.R. > 0
V.R. is smaller for lagging P.F.
With a leading P.F., VS is larger VP V.R.<0
P.F. =1

P.F. leading

Transformer Voltage Regulation

and Efficiency
Table Summarize possible Value for V.R. vs Load P.F.:
Lagging P.F.
Unity P.F.

VP/ a > VS
VP / a > VS

V.R. > 0
V.R. >0 (smaller)

Leading P.F.

VS > VP/ a

V.R. < 0

Since transformer usually operate at lagging P.F., a

simplified method is introduced

Transformer Voltage Regulation and

Efficiency
Simplified Voltage Regulation Calculation
For lagging loads: the vertical components
related to voltage drop on Req & Xeq partially
cancel each other angle of VP/a very small

Transformer Voltage Regulation

and Efficiency
Transformer Efficiency (as applied to motors, generators and motors)
Pout

x100%
Pin

Pout

x100%
Pout Ploss

Losses in Transformer:
1- Copper IR losses
2- Core Hysteresis losses
3- Core Eddy current losses
Transformer efficiency may be determined as follows:

VS I S cos

x100%
PCu Pcore VS I S cos

Transformer Voltage Regulation

and Efficiency
Example:
A 15kVA, 2300/230 V transformer tested to determine
1- its excitation branch components, 2- its series
impedances, and 3- its voltage regulation
Following data taken from the primary side of the transformer:

Open Circuit Test

VOC=2300 V
IOC=0.21A

Short Circuit Test

VSC=47 V
ISC=6 A

POC= 50 W

PSC= 160 W

Transformer Voltage Regulation

and Efficiency
(a) Find the equivalent circuit referred to H.V. side
(b) Find the equivalent circuit referred to L. V. side
(c) Calculate the full-load voltage regulation at 0.8 lagging PF,
1.0 PF, and at 0.8 leading PF
(d) Find the efficiency at full load with PF 0.8 lagging
SOLUTION:
Open circuit impedance angle is:
POC
50
1
1
OC cos
cos
84
VOC I OC
2300 0.21
Excitation admittance is:
YE

I OC
0.21
84
84 9.13 10 5 84
VOC
2300

0.0000095 j 0.0000908

Transformer Voltage Regulation

and Efficiency
Impedance of excitation branch referred to primary:
1
105k
0.0000095
1

11k
0.0000908

RC
XM

Short Circuit Impedance angle:

SC cos 1

PSC
160
cos 1
55.4
VSC I SC
47 6

Equivalent series Impedance:

Z SE

VSC
47

SC
55.4 7.83355.4
I SC
6

4.45 j 6.45

Req=4.45 , Xeq=6.45

Transformer Voltage Regulation and

Efficiency
The equivalent circuits shown below:

Transformer Voltage Regulation and

Efficiency
(b) To find eq. cct. Referred to L.V. side,
impedances divided by a=NP/NS=10
RC=1050 , XM=110
Req=0.0445 , Xeq=0.0645
(c) full load current on secondary side:
IS,rated=Srated/ VS,rated=15000/230 =65.2 A
To determine V.R., VP/ a is needed
VP/a = VS + Req IS + j Xeq IS , and:
IS=65.2/_-36.9 A , at PF=0.8 lagging

Transformer Voltage Regulation

and Efficiency
Therefore:
VP / a = 2300 (0.0445)(65.2 36.9 )

j 0.0645 65.2 36.9

2300 2.9 36.9 4.2153.1

230 2.32 j1.74 2.52 j 3.36
234.84 j1.62 234.850.4V

V.R.=(234.85-230)/230 x 100 %=2.1 % for 0.8 lagging

At PF=0.8 leading IS=65.2/_36.9 A
2300 (0.0445)(65.236.9 ) j 0.0645 65.236.9
VP / a =

2300 2.936.9 4.21126.9

230 2.32 j1.74 2.52 j 3.36
229.8 j 5.10 229.851.27 V

Transformer Voltage Regulation

and Efficiency
V.R. = (229.85-230)/230 x 100%= -0.062%
At PF=1.0 , IS= 65.2 /_0 A
VP/a= 2300 (0.0445)(65.20 ) j (0.0645)(65.20 )
2300 2.90 4.2190 230 2.9 j 4.21
232.9 j 4.21 232.941.04 V

V.R. = (232.94-230)/230 x 100% = 1.28 % for PF=1

Transformer Voltage Regulation and

Efficiency
Example: Phasor Diagrams

Transformer Voltage Regulation and

Efficiency
(d) to plot V.R. as a function of load is by
repeating the calculations of part c for many
different loads using MATLAB

Transformer Voltage Regulation and

Efficiency
(e) Efficiency of Transformer:
- Copper losses:
PCu=(IS)Req =(65.2) (0.0445)=189 W
- Core losses:
PCore= (VP/a) / RC= (234.85) / 1050=52.5 W
output power:
Pout=VSIS cos=230x65.2xcos36.9=12000 W
= VSIS cos / [PCu+PCore+VSIS cos] x 100%=
12000/ [189+52.5+12000] = 98.03 %

Efficiency of Distribution Transformers

Energy Losses in Electrical Energy

Systems
The total electrical energy use per annum of the world
is estimated as 13,934
TeraWatthours [TWh] (1 TWh = 10^9 kWh)
it is further estimated [2] that the losses in all of the
worlds electrical distribution systems total about
1215 TWh or
about 8.8% of the total electrical energy consumed.
About 30-35% of these losses are generated in the
Transformers in the Distribution systems.
Studies estimate that some 40-80% of these
transformer losses are potentially saveable by
increasing transformer efficiencies, i.e. 145-290 TWh.

Electrical Energy Losses in Distribution

Networks

Transformer Taps & Voltage Regulation

Distribution Transformers have a series taps in
windings which permit small changes in turn
ratio of transformer after leaving factory
A typical distribution transformer has four taps
in addition to nominal setting, each has a 2.5%
of full load voltage with the adjacent tap
This provides possibility for voltage adjustment
below or above nominal setting by 5%

Transformer Taps & Voltage

Regulation
Example: A 500 kVA, 13200/480 V distribution
transformer has 4, 2.5 % taps on primary
winding. What are voltage ratios?
Five possible voltage ratings are:
+5% tap
13860/480 V
+2.5% tap
13530/480 V
Nominal rating 13200/480 V
-2.5% tap
12870/480 V
-5% tap
12540/480 V

Transformer Taps & Voltage Regulation

Taps on transformer permit transformer to be adjusted
in field to accommodate variations in tap voltages
While this tap can not be changed when power is
applied to transformer
Some times voltage varies widely with load, i.e. when
high line impedance exist between generators &
particular load; while normal loads should be supplied
by an essentially constant voltage
One solution is using special transformer called: tap
changing under load transformer
A voltage regulator is a tap changing under load
transformer with built-in voltage sensing circuitry that
automatically changes taps to preserve system voltage
constant

AUTO TRANSFORMER
some occasions it is desirable to change
voltage level only by a small amount
i.e. may need to increase voltage from 110 to
120 V or from 13.2 to 13.8 kV
This may be due to small increase in voltage
drop that occur in a power system with long
lines
In such cases it is very expensive to hire a two
full winding transformer, however a special
transformer called: auto-transformer can be
used

AUTO TRANSFORMER
Diagram of a step-up auto-transformer shown
in figure below:
C: common, SE: series

AUTO TRANSFORMER
A step-down auto-transformer :
IH=ISE
IL=ISE+IC

AUTO TRANSFORMER

In step-up autotransformer:
VC / VSE = NC / NSE
(1)
NC IC = NSE ISE
(2)
voltages in coils are related to terminal voltages
as follows:
VL=VC
(3)
VH=VC+VSE
(4)
current in coils are related to terminal currents:
IL=IC+ISE
(5)
IH=ISE
(6)

AUTO TRANSFORMER

Voltage & Current Relations in Autotransformer

VH=VC+VSE
since VC/VSE=NC/NSE VH=VC+ NSE/NC . VC
Noting that: VL=VC
VH=VL+ NSE/NC . VL= (NSE+NC)/NC . VL
VL / VH = NC / (NSE+NC)
(7)
Current relations:
IL=IC+ISE employing Eq.(2) IC=(NSE / NC)ISE
IL= (NSE / NC)ISE + ISE, since ISE=IH
IL= (NSE / NC)IH +IH = (NSE + NC)/NC . IH
IL / IH = (NSE + NC)/NC
(8)

AUTO TRANSFORMER
Apparent Power Rating Advantage of Autotransformer

Note : not all power transferring from primary to

secondary in autotransformer pass through windings
Therefore if a conventional transformer be
reconnected as an autotransformer, it can handle
much more power than its original rating
The input apparent power to the step-up
autotransformer is : Sin=VLIL
And the output apparent power is:
Sout=VH IH

AUTO TRANSFORMER
And :
Sin=Sout=SIO
Apparent power of transformer windings:
SW= VCIC=VSE ISE
This apparent power can be reformulated:
SW= VCIC=VL(IL-IH) =VLIL-VLIH
employing Eq.(8) SW= VLIL-VLIL NC/(NSE+NC)
=VLIL [(NSE+NC)-NC] /(NSE+NC)=SIO NSE /(NSE+NC)
SIO / SW = (NSE+NC) / NSE
(9)

AUTO TRANSFORMER
Eq.(9); describes apparent power rating advantage of
autotransformer over a conventional transformer
smaller the series winding the greater the advantage

Example one: A 5000 kVA autotransformer connecting

a 110 kV system to a 138 kV system has an NC/NSE of
110/28
for this autotransformer actual winding rating is:
SW=SIO NSE/(NSE+NC)=5000 x 28/ (28+110)=1015 kVA
Example Two: A 100 VA 120/12 V transformer is
connected as a step-up autotransformer, and primary
voltage of 120 applied to transformer.

AUTO TRANSFORMER
(a) what is the secondary voltage of transformer
(b) what is its maximum voltampere rating in this
mode of operation
(c) determine the rating advantage of this
autotransformer connection over transformers
rating of conventional 120/12 V operation
Solution: NC/NSE= 120/12 (or 10:1)
(a) using Eq.(7),VH= (12+120)/120 x 120 = 132 V
(b) maximum VA rating 100 VA
ISE,max=100/12=8.33 A

AUTO TRANSFORMER
Sout=VSIS=VHIH= 132 x 8.33 = 1100 VA = Sin

(c) rating advantage:

SIO/SW=(NSE+NC)/NSE=(12+120)/12=11 or:
SIO/SW= 1100/100 = 11
It is not normally possible to reconnect an ordinary transformer
as an autotransformer due to the fact that insulation of L.V. side
may not withstand full output voltage of autotransformer
connection
Common practice: to use autotransformer when two voltages
fairly close
Also used as variable transformers, where L.V. tap moves up &
down the winding
Disadvantage: direct physical connection between primary &
secondary circuits, and electrical isolation of two sides is lost

AUTO TRANSFORMER
Internal Impedance of an Autotransformer
Another disadvantage: effective per unit
impedance of an autotransformer w.r.t. the
related conventional transformer is the
reciprocal of power advantage
This is a disadvantage where the series
impedance is required to limit current flows
during power system faults (S.C.)

AUTO TRANSFORMER
Example three:
A transformer rated 1000 kVA, 12/1.2 kV, 60 Hz
when used as a two winding conventional
transformer and its series resistance &
reactance are 1 and 8 percent per unit
It is used as a 13.2/12 kV autotransformer
(a) what is now the transformers rating ?
(b) what is the transformers series impedance
in per unit?

AUTO TRANSFORMER
Solution:
(a) NC/NSE= 12/1.2 (or 10:1) the voltage ratio of
autotransformer is 13.2/12 kV & VA rating :
SIO=(1+10)/1 x 1000 kVA=11000 kVA
(b) transformers impedance in per-unit when
connected as conventional transformer:
Zeq=0.01 + j 0.08 pu
Power advantage of autotransformer is 11, so
its per unit impedance would be:
Zeq=(0.01+j0.08)/11=0.00091+j0.00727 pu

Example of Variable Auto-Transformer