Thermocouples

80 degree C

20 degree C

V , T

Seebeck started it all. As one end of a metal is heated, electrons gain energy and begin to
move towards the cold end, i.e. towards the lower energy state.
After some time, there would be enough electrons at the cold end that would stop further
electrons coming from hot end.
That would be equilibrium time, and IF WE CAN MEASURE without touching the metal ends
with any other conductor, we will have a voltage difference which will be proportional to
temperature difference. This phenomenon is called Seebeck effect.
V21 = k T = k(T2-T1)
Here, k is a constant that depends on type of metal and 2 denotes hot end and 1 denotes cold
end and V21 implies that end 2 is at higher potential than end 1.
Suppose we get to know V somehow for this situation and since we know k, we will only get
to know T and not the exact temperature of the hot end unless we know the temperature of
the cold end.
Another crucial point to observe is that as there lies a temperature gradient across the length
of the conductor, similar is the gradient for the voltage. Effectively, we can consider this
element as a EMF producing element. Overall, there is no charge movement beyond the
boundaries of the bar, hence, macroscopically, it is still neutral.

Thermocouples
80 degree C

Vbar

20 degree C

V
Vwire

Since we have no other way to measure the voltage difference, we use another conductor.
Here, we have created a thermocouple.
The bar creates a potential difference of Vbar as earlier. Now, the wire is joined at the hot
end to the bar and the other ends of both bar and wire goes to the voltage measuring device.
The wire also produces a V, Vwire due to the same reason as that of bar. If the bar and wire
are of different material (but homogenous in construction), then they will both produce
different V, and since the circuit is complete a current will flow. The V doesnt depend on the
geometry or the junction of the materials but only on the type of materials. So bar and wire
are totally fine (only if you can manage to insert the bar into device terminal!).
What would be the voltage seen be the device?
Starting from the device towards the wire, we first see -Vwire and then Vbar.
Vtotal = Vbar- Vwire = kbar(T2-T1) kwire(T2-T1)
Had the materials been same, Vtotal would have been zero as the difference would have
been cancelled.
When the two types of materials are involved, the relation between temperature and voltage
does not remain that linear. Actually, it was not completely linear before as well for a single
material but it was safe to assume so. For thermocouples, we ideally use a table, where for a

Thermocouples
80 degree C

20 degree C

VA

V
VB

Considering practical application, let us replace the bar with a wire of material A. The second
wire is of material B. So, A-B form a thermocouple and we get a similar equation as before.
But we still dont get the actual temperature of the hot end since the tables give us the
temperature corresponding to the 0 degree C and the cold end, generally wont be in those
conditions.
VA12

T2

T1
VB13

T3

VA32

Let us write the equation, moving anti-clockwise, of the voltage as seen by the measuring
device.
Vtotal = kA(T2-T1) + kB(T1-T3) +
kA(T3-T2)
= kA(T3-T1) + kB(T1-T3)
We can see, that the voltage read depends only on the junctions of the dissimilar materials.
And now, if we know the temperature T3 and maintain it at constant level, we can know the
T1. If T3 is 0 degree C, no Cold Junction Compensation is required for calculating T1. In cold
junction compensation, T3 (not equal to 0 degree C) is measured by some other means and
the required compensation is then applied since the tables are based on 0 degree C. It is
possible to mathematical model the Temperature-Voltage dependence but it is not linear
hence, tables are referred practically for better accurate readings.

Thermocouples
Hot end, unknown temperature

Temperature at reference junction

Tables based on 0 degree C

We measure the temperature of the reference junction if it is not at 0 degree C using some
other measuring element. This gives us the voltage value from the table for that type of the
Thermocouple. (Say, for K-type, at 20 degree C, we get x mV. And, the measuring device gives
us y mV reading. Hence, total mV = y mV + x mV.
Now, we can refer to the table for this total mV to get the actual temperature of the Hot end.
This is Cold Junction Compensation (or Reference Junction Compensation). This, in
fact, is what is provided
by Law of Intermediate
EMF13
EMF12Temperatures. EMF23
[T2]
[T1]
[T3] =[T1]
[T3]
EMF13 = EMF12 + EMF23
Cable carrying
voltage signal
from Process
Thermocouple condition to
voltmeter
Measuring junction

Process (hot end)

T1
Reference junction

Cable inside
Voltmeter

T2

Terminal block for

Thermocouple and
cable

T3
Voltmeter
terminal
block

Voltmeter

T4

The above figure shows a typical connection technique for temperature measurement using a
thermocouple and voltmeter. T1 is the temperature we want to measure. T2 is the temperature
of the terminal block (part of the thermocouple set) where we connect our cables, that will
carry the voltage signal, to the thermocouple. The other ends of the cable go to the voltmeter
connection terminals where the temperature is T3 and T4 is the temperature inside the
voltmeter where cables terminate finally (the circuit inside is complex, this is just indicative).
Then,

Thermocouples
In the previous figure, if the Voltmeter terminal block would have been at temperature, T2,
then also it would have had no effect even if two different cables were to be used to carry
voltage signals from Reference junction to the voltmeter as the temperatures would have
cancelled out. This gives us the Law of Intermediate metals.
This, in effect, says that we can put any number of metals in a thermocouple circuit if both of
its
same
temperature.
An ends
issueare
wethe
just
noticed
in case of Cold Junction Compensation was that we had to use
another temperature measuring instrument to measure the Reference junction so as to
compensate for it. So, why should we use thermocouple if we had to use another element to
facilitate the thermocouple in its measurement? It is because of the high temperature
measuring capability of the thermocouple. The reference temperature is often near ambient
conditions and there are several easy and inexpensive options available but for the high
temperature measurement we often have to resort to thermocouple. Also, a thermocouple is
Type Positive
Negative
Min. temperature
Max.
Remarks
cheaper
than a RTD.
wire

wire

temperature

Chromel

Alumel

-180 deg C (covers

cryogenic
applications)

1250 deg C

Most linear, more expensive than J

and T

Iron

Constantan

0 deg C

800 deg C

Linear between 140-400 deg C,

most economical, becomes brittle
below 0 deg C

Copper

Constantan

-180 deg C (covers

cryogenic
applications)

400 deg C

Limited temperature range,

resistant to corrosion due to
moisture

Chromel

Constantan

-180 deg C (covers

cryogenic
applications)

1000 deg C

Highest mV/deg C, quite linear

Nicrosil

Nisil (Nickel-

Same as K-type

Same as K-

More stable than K-type, better

Thermocouples
The below graph shows the mV generated as per the temperature by various thermocouples.

Response time: It depends on diameter, medium of submersion, alloy type and temperature
level. The smaller the diameter, the faster is the time response of the thermocouple. Time
constant is lower by about 50 percent for grounded tip as compared to the ungrounded.
Exposed type tip are much faster than both of them. (why?)

Time response comparison. Exposed type is fastest (that is lowest

time constant)

Thermocouples
There are three types of cables used for connecting the open end of the thermocouple to the
reference junction in scenarios where the conductor of the thermocouple does not connect
directly to reference junction.
-Thermocouple grade cable has both the conductors as that of the thermocouple. It has the
same temperature range as that of the thermocouple.
-Extension cables are manufactured from conductors having the same nominal composition
as those of the corresponding thermocouple , ambient cable temperature is lower than the
thermocouple grade thereby affording to be have sheath/insulation for lower temperature
range, cheaper than thermocouple grade but expensive than compensating types. (BS 60584)
-Compensating cables are manufactured from conductors having a composition different
from the corresponding
Thermocouple but providing similar emf output as that of the thermocouple. Their
temperature range is also low (upto 200 deg C.), cheaper than both, generally used for S, B, R
type where the thermocouple is made of Platinum, hence both thermocouple and Extension
type cables would become too expensive. (BS 60584)
Duplex type Thermocouple: Two pairs of thermocouple in one probe so that in case of
failure of one pair other can be connected without removing the probe from the system or if
TC is to be connected to two systems separately or for local indication. Triplex configuration
can also be ordered with some manufacturers.

Thermocouples
Sources:
-Lessons in Industrial Instrumentation
-Instrument Engineers Handbook
-BS 60584-3:2008
-Thermocouple fundamentals, RICHARD M. PARK
-The Basics of Thermocouples, C. J. Abate, Circuit Cellar
-Introduction To Thermocouples, AN106, Dataforth Corporation
-Practical Thermocouple Temperature Measurements, AN107, Dataforth Corporation