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X-rays

How are they generated?

How can they be controlled?

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Back to the basics of the atomic model

• Bohr’s model

electrons

nucleus

K (n=1)
shells
L (n=2)
M (n=3)

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Back to the basics of the atomic model

Mass Charge
Proton 1 amu +
Nucleus
Neutron 1 amu

Electron 0,00055 amu -

A = Z+N
A
A = atomic mass number X
Z = atomic number = number of protons Z
N = number of neutron

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Back to the basics of the atomic model

Each electron within an

M (n=3) atom has a discrete level
L (n=2) of energy, depending upon
K (n=1) the shell it is on.

0 eV = free electron

Energy n=4
n=3
n=2

-13,6 eV
n=1 Increasing distance from nucleus
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Back to the basics of the atomic model

Energy levels
n=4

n=3

An electron can move to
a higher energy level
when sufficient energy is
to supplied to the electron.
n=2
An electron, moving to a
lower level of energy, emits
energy in the form of a photon.

n=1

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Back to the basics of the atomic model

• Energy emission by respective energy level changes (from

higher to lower energy level)
Energy levels
n=4

n=3

n=2

n=1
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Generating X-rays: the basic construction

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20-150 kV

Cathode Anode

Heated filament: Tungsten receptor

emits electrons (thermionic emission)

The electrons are powerfully attracted towards the anode under the
influence of the potential difference between cathode and anode.

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The formation of X-rays: 2 processes

Bremsstrahlung = “braking radiation”

The electron, coming

in at very high speed is
deviated and slows.

The lost energy is emitted

as radiation.
- mostly (99%) as low
energy radiation (heath)
- about 1% as X-rays

X-ray

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The formation of X-rays: 2 processes

• X-Ray energy spectrum

Intensity

Contribution
by Bremsstrahlung

Wavelength

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The formation of X-rays: 2 processes

• X-Ray energy spectrum

Radiation with the shortest wavelength

Intensity
has the highest penetration

Radiation with the lowest

penetration power

Wavelength

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The formation of X-rays: 2 processes

Characteristic radiation

The electron, coming

X-ray in at very high speed, hits
an electron of the target.

The electron is ejected

and an electron from an
outer shell fills the hole.
The energy released by
this electron coming
down from the higher
energy level is emitted
as an X-ray.

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The formation of X-rays: 2 processes

• X-ray energy spectrum

Intensity Contribution
by characteristic radiation

Contribution
by Bremsstrahlung

Wavelength

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The formation of X-rays: 2 processes

• X-ray wavelength positioning (electromagnetic radiation)

Visible light
red violet
750 nm 400 nm

1015 1012 109 106 103 1 10-3 10-6

Wavelength
radiowaves X-rays (nm)
microwaves

infrared ultraviolet

cosmic rays

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X-ray tube construction

X-ray tube
envelop
Tungsten target
Cathode Anode

X-rays

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X-ray tube construction

• Cathode

Filament
Cathode Anode
Electron beam

Focal spot size

Focusing cup:
narrow the diameter of the electron beam, so that it can be
directed onto small part of the anode, called the focal spot

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X-ray tube construction

• Dual filament cathodes

Small focal spot large focal spot

filament filament

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X-ray tube construction

• Tungsten anode target

– Standard x-ray tubes: anode composed of tungsten

– Reasons for using tungsten:

• High atomic number
• High heat capacity
• High melting point
X-ray production is inefficient and 99% of the energy
of the electrons is converted to heat
 cooling system important (!)

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X-ray tube construction

• Rotating anode: when high tube current used (>100 – 200 mA)

Rotating anode:
Tungsten disc mounted
on a rotating axis
Rotating anode

X-rays
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X-ray tube construction

• Advantages of using a rotating anode

– Heat of X-ray production spread over larger surface  higher currents
can be used without heat damage
– Anode angle can be decreased to reduce the apparent focal spot size
whilst keeping the size of the beam (and the electron flow) fixed

size of the electron beam = anode angle

apparent focal spot size

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X-ray tube construction

• X-ray tube envelop: functions

– maintain vacuum in the tube
– dissipate heat
– electric insulation
– protect against radiation leakage
– protect the tube against mechanical damage

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X-ray tube construction

• X-ray tube envelop: construction

– anode and cathode sealed in a glass envelop
• maintain vacuum

– glass envelop immersed in oil

• assure adequate heat dissipation
• electrical insulation

– tube housing covered with lead

• prevent radiation leakage
• protect against mechanical damage

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X-ray tube construction

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X-ray tube construction

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X-ray tube construction

• Collimator
– X-ray beam restricting device
• enables the control of
– the size
– the shape
• of the X-ray beam

– X-ray beam restriction mandatory

• for protection of patient and personnel against primary and scattered
radiation
• for optimization of image quality: scattered radiation produces
unwanted fog on the image

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X-ray tube construction

• Collimator
Rotating anode

Collimator blades (can be shifted)

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X-ray tube construction

• Collimator
Rotating anode

Mirror
Light source

Projection of white light

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X-ray tube construction

• Filtration
– Mainly for radio protective purposes
• low energy X-rays lack the energy to reach the film and will therefore
not contribute to the radiographic image
• low energy X-rays, however, will contribute to the patient exposure
(deposited in the patient)

Intensity

Wavelength

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X-ray tube construction

• Filtration
Rotating anode

Filter, usually
aluminium plate,
1-3 mm thick

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Influencing the output of an X-ray tube

• Adjusting the electron flow from cathode to anode (mAs)

Increasing the flow of electrons
between cathode and anode
will increase the quantity of
X-rays produced.
Flow of charge in mAs.

Cathode Anode

X-rays
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Influencing the output of an X-ray tube

• Adjusting the electron flow from cathode to anode (mAs)

After increase of mA:

- same wavelengths in
Intensity the radiation
- increased intensity
of the X-rays

Wavelength
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Influencing the output of an X-ray tube

• Adjusting the voltage between cathode and anode (kV)

Increasing the kV between

cathode and anode
increases the speed of the
electrons that strike the
target (anode)
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Cathode Anode

X-rays
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Influencing the output of an X-ray tube

• Adjusting the voltage between cathode and anode (kV)

Increasing the kV results in

- same wavelengths as obtained at the
lower kV
Intensity - additional, shorter wavelengths being
generated (orange section in drawing)
- an increase of the intensity of the
emitted radiation

Wavelength
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Influencing the output of an X-ray tube

• Adjusting the voltage between cathode and anode (kV)

X-rays with a shorter wavelength have a higher penetration power than X-

rays with longer wavelengths
Increasing the kV will result in a decrease of contrast, since more radiation
will penetrate through both thin and thick sections

Lower kV Higher kV
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Quality and quantity of X-rays

• A summary

Has impact on the Has impact on the

quantity of X-rays quality of X-rays
Adapting the kV yes yes

Adapting the mA yes no

Adapting the time yes no

of exposure

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Generating X-rays: a summary

+ nucleus components of x-ray
tube radiation
atomic structure - electrons

generating x-rays Brehmsstrahlung

energy levels with an x-ray tube
electrons characteristic
emission radiation
Atomic model spectrum
Concept

Generating X-rays

X-ray tube construction focusing cup Impact of changing parameters

cathode filament
mAs

anode static
3 parameters kV
5 main
elements envelop rotating
duration
of
collimator exposure

filtration

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