STATISTICS FOR

COMMUNICATION
RESEARCH

PROF. MADYA DR. JUSANG BOLONG

JABATAN KOMUNIKASI
03-8946 8780
jusang@fbmk.upm.edu.my

OBJEKTIF KURSUS

1.

2.

3.

4.

Pada akhir kursus ini pelajar dapat:

Menerangkan peranan statistik dalam
penyelidikan
Menerangkan perbezaan dan kaitan antara
statistik deskriptif dengan statistik inferensi
Mengenalpasti dan menerangkan teknik yang
boleh digunakan untuk menganalisis data
kuantitatif dalam penyelidikan komunikasi
Memilih teknik yang sesuai untuk menganalisis
data dan membuat tafsiran yang betul daripada
hasil analisis data.

KANDUNGAN KURSUS
1.
2.

3.

4.

5.

Definisi, jenis dan peranan statistik

Jenis data, tahap pengukuran,
sampel dan populasi
Statistik deskriptif dan
persembahan data
Indeks kecenderungan memusat
dan serakan
Statistik inferensi dan taburan
normal

KANDUNGAN KURSUS (Samb.)

6. Ujian hipotesis jenis hipotesis, at, paras
keertian, langkah-langkah ujian hipotesis
dan keputusan
8. Ujian perbandingan: Ujian T dan ANOVA
9. Ujian perkaitan: Ujian Chi-Square dan
Korelasi
10. Analisis regrasi: Ujian Multi-regrasi

Penilaian Kursus

Kerja Kursus (5 tugasan) 60%

Peperiksaan
40%
Peperiksaan Pertengahan 20%
Peperiksaan Akhir
20%

Statistics

Scientific methods for collecting,

organizing, summarizing, presenting, and
analyzing data as well as with drawing
valid conclusions and making reasonable
decision on the basis of such analysis.
A branch of applied mathematics that
specializes in procedures for describing
and reasoning from observations of
phenomena

Purpose of Statistics
1.
2.

3.

4.
5.

To describe phenomena,
To organize and summarize our
result more conveniently and
meaningfully,
To make inference or make certain
predictions,
To make explain, and
To make conclusion.

Type of Statistics
1. Descriptive Statistics
- Concerned with summarizing the
distribution of single variable or measuring
relationship between two or more
variables (Eg: Frequency distribution,
measure of central tendencies, measures
of dispersion, correlation coefficient and
deriving regression equation (prediction
equation)

Type of Statistics (cont.)

2. Inferential Statistics
- Concerned with making
generalization from sample to
population (Eg: T-test, Analysis of
Variance and Chi-square).

Concepts in Statistics
Population
- The entire group being observed, almost
always assumed to be infinite in size
- The total collection of all cases in which
the researcher is interested and wishes to
understanding.
- Group or set of human subjects or other
entities (Ex: all student at the UPM, all
members at Jabatan Komunikasi)

Concepts in Statistics (Cont.)

Sample
- The sub-group of population
- Generalizations based on samples
can accurately represent the
population

Concepts in Statistics (Cont.)

Population
Basic unit of
interest
Known as universe
Large in numbers
Difficult to
observed
Dynamic

Sample
A portion of
defined population
Small in numbers
Observable
Can draw inference
about population

Concepts in Statistics (Cont.)

Variable
- As an observable characteristic of an
object or event that can be described
according to certain classification or
scales of measurement
- Independent Variable: In bivariate
relationship, the variable is taken as
cause, normally represented by
symbol X

Concepts in Statistics (Cont.)

-

Dependent variable: In a bivariate

relationship, the variable is taken as
the effect, normally represented by
symbol Y
Continuous variable/data: A
variable/data with a unit of
measurement that can be subdivided
infinitely. Eg: Height = 150.3 cm

Concepts in Statistics (Cont.)

Discrete variable/data: A variable with
a basic unit of measurement that
cannot be subdivided.
Eg: sex
1 = Male
2 = Female

Measurement
-

The process of assigning a number to

object, place or person

Level of Measurement
- The mathematical characteristic of a
variable as determined by the
measurement process. A major
criterion for selecting statistical
procedures or techniques.

Level of Measurement
(Type of Data)
1. Nominal
Sorting elements with respect to
certain characteristics
Sort into categories that are at
homogenous as possible
Lowest level of measurement
classification, naming, labeling

Level of Measurement
(Type of Data)
2. Ordinal
- Grouping or classification of
elements with degree of order or
ranking
- May not be able say exactly how
much they possess
- Can be arrange or placed in single
continuum
- Eg: Likert scale

Level of Measurement
(Type of Data)
3. Interval
- Ordering elements with respect to
the degree to which they possess
certain characteristics
- Indicates the exact distance between
them
- Zero does not means absence
- Eg: 0 degrees Celsius (Suhu rendah)

Level of Measurement
(Type of Data)
4. Ratio
- Ordering elements with respect to
the degree to which they possess
certain characteristics
- Indicates the exact distance between
them
- Zero means absence absolute
Eg: RM0 (tiada pendapatan)

Level of Measurement
(Type of Data)

1.

2.

These four scale of measurement

can be generalized into two
categories:
Non-metric: includes the nominal
and ordinal scales of measurement.
Metric: include interval and ratio
scales of measurement.

Descriptive Statistics

Frequency distribution
Measure of central tendency
Measure of dispersion
Measure of association

Data Presentation

1.
2.

Basic function of statistics to organize

and summarize data:
Frequency table
Graphic presentation
- Pie chart
- Bar Chart
- Histogram
- Polygon
- Line graph

General guides

Use mode when variable are

nominal; you want to present quick
and easy measure for ordinal,
interval and ratio data/variables.
Use median when variable are
ordinal; you want to report the
central score and the scores
measured at interval and ratio levels
have badly skewed distribution

Use mean when variables are

interval or ratio (except for badly
skewed distribution); you want to
report the typical score and you
anticipate additional statistical
analysis.

Range: The highest score minus the

lowest score
Standard Deviation: The square root of
the squared deviation of the score around
the mean divided by N (number of cases).
Represented by the symbol s
Variance: The squared deviations of scores
around the mean divided by N.
Represented by the symbol s

Inferential Statistics

To enable researcher to make statement

or summary or decision about the
population based on the sample
To enable researcher to make statement
or summary or decision on the unseen
data based on the empirical data
To enable researcher to make statement
or summary or decision on the large group
based on data from the small group.

Two main procedures of Inferential

Statistics

Estimates
Hypothesis Testing

Statistical Assumption

A set of parameters, guidelines

indicating the conditions under which
the procedures can be most
appropriately used.
Every test has own assumption that
should not be violated
Four main assumption of Inferential
Statistics

1.
2.

3.

4.

Random sample
Characteristics are related to true
population
Multiple random sample from same
population yield similar statistics
that cluster around true population
parameters
Can calculate the sampling error
associated with a sample statistics

Normal Distribution

The normal probability distribution is a

continuous probability distribution (Ref.
Equation pg 70)
Data in the normal distribution are measured in
terms of standard deviation from mean and are
called standard scores or Z score.

Characteristics of Normal Distribution:

1. It is a continuous probability distribution
2. Symmetrical or bell-shaped with the mode,
median and mean are equal

3. The distribution contains an infinite

number of cases
4. The distribution is asymptotic the
tails approach abscissa: range from
negative to positive infinity
5. About 95% of distribution lies within
2 standard deviation from the mean.

Hypothesis Testing

a.
b.

c.

Hypothesis is a tentative statement

about something.
Statement concerning:
Differences between groups
Relationship or association between
variables
Changes that occurs

Statement related to our prediction

about population characteristics or
relationship
Statement related to research
question
Statement must be testable or
verifiable

a.
b.
c.

Hypothesis statement and testing

help us on:
Drawing conclusion
Making implication
Making suggestion

a.
b.

We are not going to prove the

hypothesis is true, but we are to
prove that is not true or false
Statistical test is to test the
hypothesis
Two types of hypothesis:
Null Hypothesis (Ho)
Alternative or Research Hypothesis
(Ha or H1)

Null Hypothesis : A statement of no

difference or no association (among
variables, samples etc)
Alternative or Research hypothesis:
A statement asserting that there is
difference or association (among
variables, samples, etc)

Two forms of hypothesis:

1. Directional Hypothesis. Eg:
Ha: >230 or
Ha: < 230

2. Non-directional Hypothesis. Eg:

Ha: = 230

FIVE STEP Model for Hypothesis

Testing
Step 1:making assumption
Samples selected randomly
Defined population
Interval-ratio data
Sampling distribution normal

Step 2: State the null and research hypothesis

Step 3: Selecting the appropriate distribution such as z, t, f
and and establishing the level of significance as well as
critical region.
Step 4: Calculate the test statistics
Step 5: State the level of significance and critical region

Level of significance or alpha level commonly used 0.05

Critical region will determine the rejection or failure to

reject the null hypothesis

Step 6: Making decision

If test statistic falls in the critical
region, reject the null hypothesis.
If test statistic does not fall in the
critical region, we fail to reject the
null hypothesis at predetermined
alpha level

Step 7: State the conclusion

Type I and Type II Error (Ref: Pg. 86-module)
Type I Error (Alpha Error):
The probability of rejecting a null hypothesis that is
in fact true
Type II Error (Beta Error)
The probability of failing to reject the null
hypothesis in fact false

Level of Significance (Alpha Level)

The probability of area under the sampling

distribution that contains unlikely sample
outcomes given that the null hypothesis is
true. Also, the probability of type I error
Commonly expressed as 90%, 95% or
99% or written as alpha = 0.10, 0.05 or
0.01
95%, refers to alpha 0.05 which means
that we are 95% sure of making the right
decision and 5% error.

Critical Region

The area under the sampling distribution

that, in advance of the test itself, is
defined as including unlikely sample
outcome given that the null hypothesis is
true.
Critical value of the test statistic to reject
null hypothesis
Critical value is defined from the test
statistic table corresponding to its level of
significance and degree of freedom.

The null hypothesis is rejected when

the value of test statistics exceed the
critical value and lies in the critical
region

One-tailed and Two-tailed Test

Critical region on one side or both
sides of the distribution depending
on the nature of alternative or
research hypothesis.
Eg: Ho: a = b (Two-tailed)
Ha: a b
Ha: a > b (One-tailed)
Ha: a < b

Two-tailed Test

A type of hypothesis test used when

direction of difference between
variables or samples cannot be
predicted (Non-directional
hypothesis)
Two-tailed test has a two critical
regions on both sides of the
distribution

One-tailed Test

A type of hypothesis test used when

the direction of the difference
between variables or samples can be
predicted (Directional hypothesis)
One-tailed test has a one critical
region that correspond to the
direction of the research hypothesis.