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Location and Distribution of Cold

Environments

LO: To be able to describe and located


different cold environments.

Task 1
Using pages 40 and 41 find definitions for
the following terms:
Tundra/Periglacial
Alpine
Glacial
Ice Cap
Ice Sheet
Glacier

Task 2
Using pages 40 and 41 shade the following
types of cold environments on your map.
Tundra/Periglacial
Alpine
Glacial
Create a key so each area is clearly
identified.

Plenary

Glacial Budgets

LO: To be able to identify how a


glacier works as a system.

Task 1
Using pages 44-45 (Philip Allen) and pages
48-50 (Nelson Thorne) find definitions
for each of the key terms:

Mass Balance

Accumulation Zone

Ablation Zone

Equilibrium Line

Sublimation
Steady State
Net Balance
Surge

Task 2
Complete a fully annotated diagram
showing a cross section of a glacier using
the key terms from todays lesson.

Plenary

Ice Movement

LO: To be able to identify the different


types of glacier and how they move.

Types of Glaciers
Warm Based (Temperate/Alpine)
Melting occurs during the summer, releasing
meltwater.
Meltwater acts as lubricant reducing
friction at the base resulting in basal flow.
Glaciers can move between 20 and 200m per
year.
Has a large amount of erosion,
transportation and deposition.

Types of Glaciers
Cold Based (Polar)
Occur where the temperature remains
below 0C and no melting occurs.
Glaciers are frozen to their bed.
Movement is through internal flow or
deformation.
Limited rates of erosion, transportation
and deposition.

Task 1
Annotate your diagram adding
descriptions of the following types of
glaciers:
Niche
Cirque/Corrie
Valley

Piedmont
Ice Cap
Ice Shelve

Types of Glacier Flow

LO: To be able to identify the different


types of glacier and how they move.

How do glaciers move?


This all depends on the temperature of
the ice. At different parts of the glacier
the ice can be at different temperatures.
This difference in temperature is a result
of the pressure melting point, this is ice
that is on the verge of melting.
At the surface this is normally 0C, but
this can be lower within the glacier due to
the pressure being exerted.

Internal Deformation
Occurs within the glacier ice due to the
force of gravity.
Ice crystal align themselves in the
direction of glacier flow sliding past each
other.
Movement is faster at the surface than
the base.
Due to difference in speed, crevasses
form at the faster moving surface.

Internal Deformation

Basal Sliding
The sliding of a glacier over bedrock.
Friction and pressure cause the base to
melt resulting in water acting as a
lubricant.
Can also occur due to creep, where
pressure builds and the ice becomes
more plastic and flows around the
obstacle.

Compression/Extensional Flow
Compression flow: occurs where the land
is flatter causing the ice to decelerate.
Resulting in the ice being thicker. High
levels of erosion.
Extensional flow: occurs where the
gradient is steeper. The ice accelerates
and becomes thinner, causing less
erosion. This also results in crevasses
and seracs.

Plenary

Erosional Landforms

LO: To be able to describe and explain


the key highland erosional landforms.

What does a pre-glacial landscape


look like?

What does a glacial landscape


look like?

What does a post-glacial landscape


look like?

How do glaciers get


material?
Weathering
The main source of material is frost
shattering (or freeze-thaw). This
process results in material breaking
away from the surrounding mountains
and falling onto the glacier. It can then
be carried on the surface (supraglacial),
base (subglacial) or within the glacier
(englacial).

How do glaciers get


material?
Plucking
When the glacier freezes on to the bed rock
and pulls material away as it moves. This can
occur at the back of corries or where the
glacier meets obstructions.
Abrasion
Angular material carried by the glacier rubs at
the valley side and floor gradually wearing it
away. These rock can leave scratches called
striations on the bed rock.

Highland Landforms
Corrie/Cirque
Snow collects in a natural hollow on the
side of a mountain. Over time, further
snow collects in the hollow. This extra
weight compresses the snow underneath,
turning it into ice.
The hollow is deepened and widened by
the corrie glacier through the processes
of abrasion and plucking.

This over-deepening leads to an


armchair shape characteristic of a
corrie and causes a rock lip to be
formed.

A Corrie in pictures! Cwm Idwal


Steep back-wall

Bowl-shaped corrie
Tarn

Highland
Landforms
Arte
An arte is a knife
edge ridge that
forms where two
or more corries
erode back-toback.

Corrie
An arm chair
shaped hollow
widened and
deepened by a
glacier.

Arete
Sharp knife
edged ridge
between TWO
corries.

Highland Landforms
Pyramidal Peak
Occurs where
three or more
corries erode
back-to-back.

Plenary

Geographical Skills:

Corrie
Orientation and Altitude Task
To find a corries
orientation (aspect)
locate a corrie on a
map and find the
tightest curve of
contours on the back
wall. Place a compass
edge at right angles to
the contours and turn
the dial until the lines
in it are aligned to the
grid lines on the map.

Corrie Orientation
What relationship did you find between
elevation and orientation?
Is there a pattern that emerges and
what is it?
How strong (statistically) is the
relationship you have found?

Erosional Landforms

LO: To be able to describe and explain


the key lowland erosional landforms.

Glacial Trough

U-Shape Valley
Ribbon Lakes
Fjords
Hanging Valleys
Truncated Spurs
Roche Mountonne

Glacial Trough
Glaciers would have flowed down existing
river valleys, gradually widening,
deepening and straightening them. This
would eventually lead to the formation of
a U-Shape Valley.

Glacial Trough
Glacial troughs have a stepped profile,
and typically have a steep back wall called
a trough end. Above this you may find
hanging valleys and corries.

Ribbon
Lakes

Where compressing flow


took place or at the
confluence of glaciers,
erosion would be
greater. This would
over-deepen the valley
forming a rock basin.
Where the rock basins
are filled with water you
find elongated Ribbon
Lakes (such as Wast
Water in the Lake
District).

Fjords are glacial


troughs that have
been filled by water,
as the sea level has
risen since the end of
the last glaciation.
Since the last
glaciation sea level
has risen by almost
120m. Fjords are a
common feature on
the coast of Norway.

Fjords

Hanging Valleys

In these valleys the


glaciers were smaller
and had less erosive
power, meaning they
did not erode the rock
down to the same level
as the main glacier.
When the main valley
glacier retreat, they
were left hanging
above the main valley
floor. (Example:
Milford Sound, NZ)

Hanging Valleys

Truncated
Spur
Is the straightening of
former pre-glacial
river valleys. Any land
(spurs) that projected
in to the valley being
removed.

Roche Mountonne
Are sections of bedrock
which have been eroded
by glaciers moving over
the top of them. They
have a gently sloping,
polished, stoss slope as a
result of abrasion. The
lee slope is steep and
jagged due to plucking
taking place as a result of
refreezing.

Roche Mountonne

Plenary

Depositional Landforms

LO: To be able to describe and explain


the key depositional landforms.

Till
Till (or boulder clay) is the generic name
for material that has been transported
and deposited by a glacier. Material can
range in size from some particle to large
house sized boulders. It is often angular in
shape, and when deposited it is orientated
showing the direction of glacier flow. It
can be deposited in a variety of ways
producing a range of features.

Till
Lodgement Till
Material deposited at the base by a
moving glacier (e.g. a drumlin).
Ablation Till
Material deposited as a result of ice
melting (e.g. recessional or terminal
moraine).

Till Fabric Analysis


Aim
To determine the
origin
of
the
sediment deposit.
Hypothesis
The sediment is of
fluvial origin.

Sediment Orientation

Pebbles in a river are rolled along


their B-axis. Therefore when they
are deposited many of the pebbles
will have their A-axis orientated
across the river. A glacier, on the
other hand, carries pebbles frozen
within the ice.
They are
transported
with
the
A-axis
orientated in the direction of ice
flow.

Till Fabric Analysis:


Plenary
What conclusions can you draw about
the origins of the sediment in Glen
Rosa?
How did you come to this decision?
Explain your ideas.

Depositional Landforms

LO: To be able to describe and explain


the key depositional landforms.

Moraines
Moraines are features deposited at the
margins of glaciers. They occur in a
variety of different place, and can
represent a glacial advance or retreat.
The main types of moraine are lateral,
medial, terminal, recessional and push
moraines.

Types of Moraine

Terminal
Recessional
Push
Lateral
Medial

Moraines
Terminal Moraine
Is a ridge of material stretching across
the valley at right angle to the
movement of the glacier, often in the
shape of a crescent. They are steep
side on the glacier side and can reach up
60m in height.

Moraines
Recessional Moraine
Are ridges deposited across the valley as
the glacier has stagnated during retreat.
These are often parallel to terminal
moraines.
Push Moraine
Are moraine that have been reworked as a
result of a glacier re-advancing during
cold periods.

Moraines
Lateral Moraine
Are formed from material deposited at the
sides of glaciers and are parallel to the
direction of glacier movement. They are often
made of material that has fallen from the
valley sides.
Medial Moraine
Where two glacier meet the lateral moraines
combine and form a feature between the two
glaciers.

Drumlins are asymmetrical


elongated mound of till.
They can vary in size from
50m to 1km in length.
It is believed that they are
formed beneath a glacier
by the pressure of ice at a
time when the glacier could
not carry material.
They are orientated in the
direction of glacier flow.
They have a steep stoss
end and a shallow lee slope.
They often appear in
swarms.

Drumlins

Erratics
Are rocks and material
carried hundred of
kilometers by a glacier
and deposited on top of
a different rock type.
They are said to be ex
situ (not in the correct
place).

Plenary

Fluvio-glacial Processes

LO: To be able to describe and explain


fluvio-glacial processes and

Outwash Plain/Sandur
An outwash plain is the area in front of the
glacier where meltwater streams flow. The
gravels, sands and clays carried by the streams
are deposited. The larger material is found
close the glacier whereas the finer clays are
carried further away.
They may also be made up of other depositional
features (such as moraines and eskers), which
have been reworked by the streams.

The Role of Meltwater


During summer when ablation is at its
greatest on temperate glaciers, vast
rivers form. These can be fed by both
subglacial and supraglacial streams. These
rivers have a high velocity and can carry
large amounts of sediment.
In subglacial streams where there is
greater pressure they can carve subglacial
valleys up to 15m deep.

As the discharge in outwash streams


decreases material is deposited forming
many features including eskers, kames,
outwash plains and (in lakes) varves.

Skeiarrsandur in Iceland is the largest outwash


plain in world, covering an area approximately
1300km2. It also has many classic depositional
features.

Plenary
Assess the role of meltwater erosion
and deposition in the formation of
fluvioglacial landforms. (8 marks)

MARK SCHEME

Eskers

Eskers
Are sinuous, stratified ridges of sediment
running parallel to the flow of the former
glacier. They can range in height from 5
to 20m.

Eskers were formed by subglacial streams


as a result of the streams being cut off or
the water supply slowly being reduced as
ablation decreases.
As the glacier retreats the ridge is left
behind, they are often destroyed by erosion
due to outwash streams.

Kames and Kame Terraces

Kames and Kame Terraces


Kame
Are deposits of sand and gravel left by streams in
small ponds at the front of a glacier or in crevasses
on the glaciers surface. When the ice melts these
collapse to form irregular mounds.
Kame Terrace
Are formed at the sides of glaciers where layers of
material are deposited by streams between the
glacier and valley sides. When the glacier melts the
material forms a terrace raised above the valley
floor.

Kettle Holes

Kettle Holes
When a glacier retreats it often leave
blocks of dead ice which can be buried
beneath fluvio-glacial deposits.
Gradually the ice slowly melts and
leaves a depression in the outwash
plain. Depending on the level of the
water-table this can be filled with
water, resulting in a kettle lake. They
are often associated with kames to
produce a kame and kettle topography.

Proglacial Lakes

Proglacial Lakes
Proglacial lakes form at the margins of
glaciers. They often fill the overdeepened basin that has been left as
glaciers retreat. They are filled as
meltwater drains from the glacier.
These lakes can be dammed by moraines,
dead ice or other glaciers and occasionally
cause catastrophic flooding, such as in the
Himalayas and the Andes.

Within proglacial lakes (a


lacustrine environment)
sediments are deposited which
form distinct characteristics
and are known as Varves.
During the spring and summer,
when streams have more energy,
larger, light coloured sand is
deposited. In the autumn when
discharge decrease the streams
carry only darker coloured silt
and clay. These can only be
deposited in low energy
environments.

Braided Streams

Braided Streams
When glacial ice melts, the water moves away from
the glacial snout in fast flowing rivers. The water
transports vast quantities of sediment and debris.
If the sediment load is very large in relation to the
velocity of the stream, the coarse material may
start to block the stream, forcing it to change its
course. The stream starts to diverge, splitting into
numerous segments which split and join repeatedly.
Braided streams are typically shallow and wide,
surrounded by poorly sorted rock debris.

Periglacial Processes and Landforms

LO: To be able to describe and explain


periglacial processes.

Periglacial Environments
Periglacial environments are areas which
are exposed to extremely cold conditions
with intense frost action, and have
permanently frozen ground or permafrost.
These regions have consistently low
temperatures, short summers (max temp
15C), and extremely cold winters
(reaching -40C).

Permafrost
Occurs where the temperature of the subsoil
remains below 0C for at least 2 years. It is
thought that permafrost covers 25% of the
earths surface including areas such as
Siberia, Northern Canada, Alaska and China
If the temperature rises above 0C in the
summer the surface layer (up to 3m deep)
can thaw, forming an active layer. As the ice
melts this releases water in to the layer. Due
to the frozen ground below the water cannot
drain, saturating the ground leading to
solifluction.

Types of Permafrost
Continuous Permafrost
Found in the coldest areas and can be extremely deep
(up to 1500m in Siberia). Often there is little or no
melting of this type of permafrost.
Discontinuous Permafrost
Found in slightly warmer regions, only the upper 2030m of land is frozen. Gaps in the permafrost can be
found under rivers, lakes and near the sea.
Sporadic Permafrost
Found where temperatures fluctuate around 0C. This
results in isolated patches of permafrost, where
localised climatic conditions prevent thawing in the
summer.

Continuous
permafrost occurs in
northern Russia,
Canada, Alaska and
Greenland.
Discontinuous
permafrost extends
to 50N in Siberia
and East Canada.
Sporadic (Alpine)
permafrost occurs at
very high elevations
as far south as 30N.

Freeze Thaw
In periglacial environments
freeze thaw results in the
build up of scree at the
base of slopes as a result
of frost shattering. In flat
areas large angular
boulders can be left known
as blockfield or
felsenmeer (sea of rocks).

Nivation
Takes place under patches of snow in hollows
of bare rock, generally on north to east
facing slopes. This can result from a variety
of processes including; freeze-thaw, chemical
weathering, solifluction and meltwater. The
underlying rock disintergrates, then during
the spring thaw loose material is carried
away. This leaves a nivation hollow, which
could eventually lead to a corrie.

Solifluction
Solifluction occurs when
the surface layer of
permafrost melts. Due to
saturation the soil is heavily
lubricated. This means on
slopes as shallow as 2 the
active layer begins to move
downslope. This creates
tongue like features
forming terraces called
lobes or solifluction sheets.

Frost Heave and Patterned


Ground

Frost Heave and


Patterned Ground
When the active layer refreezes, ice
crystals begin to form. As they
expand the volume of the soil
increases and causes an upward
expansion of the surface causing the
surface to dome.
Within the soil there are larger
stones, these heat up and cool faster
than the surrounding material. As a
result the ground beneath the stones
freezes faster and expands before
the other material, pushing the
stones towards the surface. The
stones then roll to the bottom of the
dome.

Frost Heave and Patterned


Ground
This forms patterned ground. On shallow slopes
(<6) stone polygons are formed, on steeper
ground they form stone stripes.

Groundwater Freezing: Pingo


When permafrost is thin or discontinuous,
water can seep in to the upper layers of the
ground. When it freezes it causes the
overlying ground to heave upwards in a dome
shape, called a pingo. They can reach height
of up to 50m and be up to 500m wide.
They are often found in sandier soils in area
such as Greenland and are referred to as
open system types.

Groundwater Freezing: Pingo

Groundwater Freezing: Pingo

Closed system pingos are typical of low lying


areas with continuous permafrost. On the site
of small lakes, ground water can be trapped by
freezing water from above and by the
permafrost below. As the water freezes and
expands it pushes up the sediment above
forming a the pingo. The center can collapse and
may be in filled with water to form a small lake.

Ground Contraction
Freezing of the active layer causes
the ground to contract and cracks
open on the surface. During the
following summer these cracks fill
with meltwater and fine sediment.
Over many years this repeats and
forms an ice wedge, which can be
up to 3m deep and 1m wide. On the
surface polygon patterns can be
formed by frost heaving.

Ice wedges in continuous permafrost, arctic Canada

Water and Wind Action


Due to the lack of vegetation rates of erosion by
wind and water in periglacial landscapes can be
very high.
Water erosion results from seasonal streams
which have a high discharge as a result of the
water released form the active layer.
In periglacial areas winds can reach high
velocities, these winds carry material causing
abrasion on the surface of bare rock, polishing and
shaping them (ventifacts). Winds can also carry
fine material from outwash plains long distances,
resulting in deposits up to 300m thick (loess).

Groundwater Freezing

Groundwater Freezing: Pingo

Antarctica and the Southern


Ocean

To understand where Antarctica is and why it is a


special place.
Assess the threats and uses of Antarctica as a
resource for exploration and exploitation

What and
where is
Antarctica?
Page 79 and
the Atlas

Watch the clip and note down all of the


physical and human features of Antarctica

http://uk.youtube.com/watch?v=Tem
K6CF6lF0
http://uk.youtube.com/watch?v=VwAD
GPfjerI

Fishing and Whaling


Produce a timeline of fishing and whaling in
the Southern ocean using pages 79 and 80
Date
1786
1830
1868
1925
1930s
1950
1960s
1964
1966

Event

Why are Krill so important to the


Southern Ocean food chain? (page 80/1)

Tourism in Antarctica
1. What attracts tourists to Antarctica?
2. How do they access this place?
3. What has happened to the number
of tourists over time? (use the graph
to help)
4. What impact does tourism have on
this environment?
5. Is tourism well managed in this
region?

Opinion Line
The Madrid Protocol, Banning Mining,
should be scrapped
It is justifiable to allow whaling
Antarctica remains a wilderness
Tourism to Antarctica should be
banned
Tourism to Antarctica should be
restricted

Homework
Visit www.coolantarctica.com and
research the facts and science
section, look at the photographs as
well.

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