Professional Documents
Culture Documents
TheAmericanSoul
Factual Issues
Iftwopartiestakeconflictingpositionsona
matteroffact,oneofthemmustbewrong.
Example:FranklinbelievedthattheUnitedStates
shouldattempttousereasontocreateitspolitical
system.
Example:Itisillegaltobringglassbeverage
containersintoBidwellPark.
Moralprinciplesmaybedeeplyheldandmay
evenbewrittenintolaw,butbecausetheyare
alwaysdebatable,theyarenotfactualclaims.
Prescriptive Claims
Inmoralreasoning,prescriptiveclaims(claims
containingtheideaofshouldorought)mayshowupas
generalprinciplesorasmoralobligationsthatdirect
agentstoengageinoravoidsomespecificbehavior.
Asgeneralprinciple:EachAmericanshouldcommitto
bringingonesownbestthoughttogetherwithones
bestefforttolistenandattendtotheother.(p.129)
Asparticularmoralvaluejudgment:Weareobliged,by
thelawsofconscience,tobringtotheearthwhatthe
Indiansbrought.(p.236)
Ought and Is
Claimscontainingtheconceptsofoughtorshould
orsimilarobligationsdonotgenerallyfollowfrom
purelydescriptiveclaims.
Thenaturalisticfallacyoccurswhenadescriptionofa
situationistakentoprovidesufficientjustificationfor
creatingoracceptingsomedutyorobligation.
Agooduseofthisunderstandingoftheseparationof
oughtandis:identifyingprescriptiveassumptions
(unstatedpremises)thatarenecessarytoconnect
descriptivepremisestoprescriptiveconclusions.Thisis
onewaytoavoidnonsequitursinmoralreasoning.
A Naturalistic Fallacy
ThecommunityofEphratawasfoundedbyConrad
Beisselontraditionalmysticalspiritualprinciples.
So,ourmoderncommunitiesshouldtrytofollowthe
exampleofEphrata.
Whyisthisanaturalisticfallacy?
A Naturalistic Fallacy
ThecommunityofEphratawasfoundedbyConrad
Beisselontraditionalmysticalspiritualprinciples.
So,ourmoderncommunitiesshouldtrytofollowthe
exampleofEphrata.
Itsonlynaturaltoacceptthisconclusionifone
holdscertainbeliefsabouttraditionalmystical
spiritualprinciplesandmoderncommunities.These
beliefs,whichareassumedintheexampleabove,
wouldneedtobestatedaspremisesinthefully
explicitversionoftheargument.
Fairnessseemstorequireconsistencyofsomesort:
actingaccordingtorulesorprinciples
lettingprojectedoutcomesguideaction
Aknownproblem:Theendsjustifythemeans.
Caseinpoint:theaffirmativeactioncontroversy
Thereis(now)broadagreementthatsocietyshouldoffer
equalopportunity.Thereisdeepdisagreementonwhat
constitutesequalopportunityandhowtoachieveit.
Utilitarian Reasoning
Consider individuals that are conscious
of pleasure or pain
Utilitarian Reasoning
Consider individuals that are conscious
of pleasure or pain
Maximize happiness
Utilitarian Reasoning
Consider individuals that are conscious
of pleasure or pain
Maximize happiness
Minimize unhappiness
Utilitarian Reasoning
Consider individuals that are conscious
of pleasure or pain
Maximize happiness
Minimize unhappiness
Focus on consequences of actions
Utilitarian Reasoning
Consider individuals that are conscious
of pleasure or pain
Maximize happiness
Minimize unhappiness
Focus on consequences of actions
Rights, obligations, intentions are not
easily included in premises of utilitarian
arguments
Keypointindutytheory:Categoricalimperatives,
whicharebasedontheintentiontodotheright
thing,canbetestedbyaskingiftherulewouldbea
goodoneforeveryonetofollow.
Acategoricalimperative:Avoidviolence.
Whatwouldhappenifeveryonefollowedthisrule?
Alsoimportant:Evenifeveryonewantedtofollow
thisrule,wouldtheyinterpretitthesameway?
1)Moralreasoningmaycometoconclusions
aboutprinciplesoractions.
2)Atleastonepremisemustbesuppliedbya
moraltheorythatspecifieswhatisrightor
whatoughttobedone.
3)Purelydescriptiveclaimsaboutmattersof
factarenotsufficienttocreateacompletely
explicitmoralargument.
4)Assumptionsmustberecognized.