Professional Documents
Culture Documents
The biosphere
Ecosystems
Organelles
1 m
Cell
Cells
Atoms
10 m
Communities
Molecules
Tissues
Populations
Organisms
50 m
Energy Conversion
Energy exchange between an organism and
environment often involves energy transformations
Energy flows through an ecosystem, usually
entering as light and exiting as heat
Sunlight
Ecosystem
Producers
(plants and other
photosynthetic
organisms)
Heat
Chemical
energy
Consumers
(including animals)
Heat
25 m
Sperm cell
Nuclei
containing
DNA
Egg cell
Fertilized egg
with DNA from
both parents
Embryos cells
With copies of
inherited DNA
Nucleus
DNA
Nucleotide
Cell
EUKARYOTIC CELL
PROKARYOTIC CELL
DNA
(no nucleus)
Membrane
Membrane
Cytoplasm
Organelles
Nucleus (contains DNA)
1 m
Negative
feedback
Enzyme 1
B
A
Enzyme 1
B
Enzyme 2
C
C
Enzyme 3
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
W
Enzyme 4
Enzyme 4
Positive
feedback
Enzyme 5
Enzyme 5
Y
Y
Enzyme 6
Enzyme 6
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Order
Ursus
americanus
(American
black bear)
Ursus
Ursidae
Carnivora
Mammalia
Chordata
Animalia
Eukarya
Bacteria
Archaea
4 m
0.5 m
Protists
Kingdom Fungi
100 m
Kingdom Plantae
Kingdom Animalia
15 m
5 m
Cilia of Paramecium
0.1 m
Cilia of Paramecium
Population
of organisms
Overproduction
and competition
Hereditary
variations
Differences in
reproductive success
Evolution of adaptations
in the population
Reproduction of survivors
Large
ground finch
Large cactus
ground finch
Geospiza
magnirostris
Sharp-beaked
ground finch Geospiza
conirostris
Large
tree finch
Small
ground
finch
Geospiza
fuliginosa
Medium
ground
finch
Camarhynchus
psittacula
Woodpecker
finch
Geospiza
difficilis Cactus
ground finch
Mangrove
finch
Geospiza
fortis
Geospiza
scandens
Seed eater
Cactospiza
pallida
Medium
tree finch
Camarhynchus
pauper
Small
tree finch
Gray
warbler
finch
Certhidea
olivacea
Certhidea
fusca
Camarhynchus
parvulus
Cactospiza
heliobates
Cactus flower
eaters
Green
warbler
finch
Vegetarian
finch
Seed eaters
Platyspiza
crassirostris
Insect eaters
Ground finches
Tree finches
Bud eater
Warbler finches
Discovery Science
Examples of discovery science:
understanding cell structure
expanding databases of genomes
Types of Data
Two types of data:
Quantitative data: numerical measurements
Qualitative data: recorded descriptions
Hypothesis-Based Science
Hypotheses are hypothetical explanations
Florida
Inland
population
GULF OF
MEXICO
Beach
population
Members of the
same species
living inland are
darker in color.
Camouflaged
(control)
Predation rate
Results
1.0
Camouflaged
(control)
0.5
0
Non-camouflaged
(experimental)
Light
Dark
models models
Beach
habitats
Light
Dark
models models
Inland
habitats
Non-camouflaged
(experimental)
Experimental Controls
A controlled experiment compares an
experimental group (the non-camouflaged mice)
with a control group (the camouflaged mice)
Ideally, only the variable of interest (the effect of
coloration on the behavior of predators) differs
between the control and experimental groups
A controlled experiment means that control
groups are used to cancel the effects of unwanted
variables
A controlled experiment does not mean that all
unwanted variables are kept constant
Theories in Science
In the context of science, a theory is
Broader in scope than a hypothesis
General enough to lead to new testable
hypotheses
Supported by a large body of evidence in
comparison to a hypothesis
Honeybee (stinging)
North
Carolina
Eastern coral
snake
South
Carolina
Limitations of Science
The limitations of science are set by its naturalism
Science seeks natural causes for natural
phenomena
Science cannot support or falsify supernatural
explanations, which are outside the bounds of
science
Three-dimensional objects
Computer programs
Mathematical equations
From
body
From
lungs
Right
atrium
Left
atrium
Right
ventricle
Left
ventricle
To lungs
To body
a) systems biology
b) emergent properties
c) inductive reasoning
d) reductionism
e) genomics
The idea that form and function are related would not
be exemplified by which of the following examples?
12
17
19
37
The biosphere
Ecosystems
Organelles
1 m
Cell
Cells
Atoms
10 m
Communities
Molecules
Tissues
Populations
Organisms
50 m
Desert
30
Temperate
broadleaf
forest
15
Coniferous
forest
0
Arctic and
alpine
tundra
15
100
200
300
400
30N
Tropic of
Cancer
Equator
Tropic of
Capricorn
30S
Key
Tropical forest
Savanna
Desert
Chaparral
Temperate grassland
Temperate broadleaf forest
Coniferous forest
Tundra
High mountains
Polar ice
2,000
dN
= 1.0N
dt
1,500
Exponential
growth
K = 1,500
Logistic growth
1,000
dN
= 1.0N
dt
1,500 N
1,500
500
10
Number of generations
15
Number of Daphnia/50 mL
180
150
120
90
60
30
0
0
20
40
0
Lynx
1850
1875
1900
Year
9
80
6
40
3
1925
0
160
Snowshoe hare
Competition
Strong competition can lead to competitive
exclusion, local elimination of a competing
species
The competitive exclusion principle states
that two species competing for the same
limiting resources cannot coexist in the
same place
Ecological Niches
The total of a species use of biotic and abiotic
resources is called the species ecological
niche
Ecologically similar species can coexist in a
community if there are one or more significant
differences in their niches
As a result of competition, a species
fundamental niche may differ from its realized
niche
Chthamalus
Balanus
High tide
High tide
Chthamalus
realized niche
Chthamalus
fundamental niche
Balanus
realized niche
Ocean
Low tide
Ocean
Low tide
Resource Partitioning
Resource partitioning is differentiation of
ecological niches, enabling similar species to
coexist in a community
Quaternary
consumers
Carnivore
Carnivore
Tertiary
consumers
Carnivore
Carnivore
Secondary
consumers
Carnivore
Carnivore
Primary
consumers
Herbivore
Zooplankton
Primary
producers
Plant
A terrestrial food chain
Phytoplankton
A marine food chain
Humans
A food web is a
branching food
chain with
complex trophic
interactions
Smaller
toothed
whales
Baleen
whales
Crab-eater
seals
Birds
Leopard
seals
Fishes
Sperm
whales
Elephant
seals
Squids
Carnivorous
plankton
Euphausids
(krill)
Copepods
Phytoplankton
Keystone Species
In contrast to dominant species, keystone
species are not necessarily abundant in a
community
They exert strong control on a community by
their ecological roles, or niches
Field studies of sea stars exhibit their role as a
keystone species in intertidal communities
Observation
of sea otter
populations
and their
predation
shows how
otters affect
ocean
communities
Otter number
(% max. count)
100
80
60
40
20
0
Sea otter abundance
Number per
0.25 m2
Grams per
0.25 m2
400
300
200
100
0
Sea urchin biomass
10
8
6
4
2
0
Trophic Relationships
Energy and nutrients pass from primary
producers (autotrophs) to primary consumers
(herbivores) and then to secondary consumers
(carnivores)
Energy flows through an ecosystem,
entering as light and exiting as heat
Nutrients cycle within an ecosystem
Tertiary
consumers
Microorganisms
and other
detritivores
Detritus
Secondary
consumers
Primary consumers
Primary producers
Heat
Key
Chemical cycling
Energy flow
Sun
Tertiary
consumers
Secondary
consumers
10 J
100 J
Primary
consumers
1,000 J
Primary
producers
10,000 J
1,000,000 J of sunlight
CO2 in atmosphere
Photosynthesis
Cellular
respiration
Burning of
fossil fuels
and wood
Higher-level
consumers
Primary
consumers
Carbon compounds
in water
Detritus
Decomposition
H
+
H
H2O
Hydrogen
bond
Polar covalent
bonds
Buffers
The internal pH of most living cells must remain
close to pH 7
Buffers are substances that minimize changes in
concentrations of H+ and OH- in a solution
Most buffers consist of an acid-base pair that
reversibly combines with H+
Short polymer
Unlinked monomer
Longer polymer
Dehydration reaction in the synthesis of a polymer
Hydrolysis of a polymer
Aldoses
Triose sugars
(C3H6O3)
Pentose sugars
(C5H10O5)
Hexose sugars
(C6H12O6)
Glyceraldehyde
Ribose
Galactose
Ketoses
Glucose
Dihydroxyacetone
Ribulose
Fructose
Linear and
ring forms
Abbreviated ring
structure
Dehydration
reaction in the
synthesis of maltose
14
glycosidic
linkage
Glucose
Glucose
Dehydration
reaction in the
synthesis of sucrose
Maltose
12
glycosidic
linkage
Glucose
Fructose
Sucrose
Starch granules
in a potato tuber cell
Starch (amylose)
Glucose
monomer
Glycogen granules
in muscle
tissue
Cellulose microfibrils
in a plant cell wall
Cellulose
molecules
Glycogen
Cellulose
Hydrogen bonds
between OH groups
(not shown) attached to
carbons 3 and 6
Fatty acid
(palmitic acid)
Glycerol
Ester linkage
100 m
A fat molecule
Fluid
Unsaturated hydrocarbon
tails with kinks
Membrane fluidity
Viscous
Hydrophilic region
of protein
Phospholipid
bilayer
carbon
Amino
group
Carboxyl
group
Peptide bond
New peptide
bond forming
Side
chains
Backbone
Amino end
(N-terminus)
Peptide
bond
Carboxyl end
(C-terminus)
Denaturation
Denatured protein
Normal protein
Renaturation
Enzymatic proteins
Defensive proteins
Antibodies
Enzyme
Virus
Bacterium
Transport proteins
Storage proteins
Function: Storage of amino acids
Examples: Casein, the protein of milk, is
the major source of amino acids for baby
mammals. Plants have storage proteins
in their seeds. Ovalbumin is the protein
of egg white, used as an amino acid
source for the developing embryo.
Ovalbumin
Amino acids
for embryo
Cell membrane
Hormonal proteins
Receptor proteins
High
blood sugar
Insulin
secreted
Signaling molecules
Normal
blood sugar
Structural proteins
Function: Support
Examples: Keratin is the protein of hair,
horns, feathers, and other skin appendages.
Insects and spiders use silk fibers to make
their cocoons and webs, respectively.
Collagen and elastin proteins provide a
fibrous framework in animal connective
tissues.
Myosin
Collagen
Muscle tissue
30 m
Connective tissue 60 m
Substrate
(sucrose)
Glucose
Enzyme
(sucrose)
Fructose
Free energy
Transition state
EA
Reactants
A
B
G < O
Products
Progress of the reaction
Free energy
Course of
reaction
without
enzyme
EA
without
enzyme
EA with
enzyme
is lower
Reactants
Course of
reaction
with enzyme
G is unaffected
by enzyme
Products
Progress of the reaction
40
60
Temperature (C)
20
80
100
Optimal pH
for trypsin
(intestinal
enzyme)
5
pH
10
Cardiac
orifice
Tongue
Salivary
glands
Oral cavity
Parotid gland
Sublingual gland
Pharynx
Esophagus
Submandibular gland
Pyloric
sphincter
Liver
Stomach
Ascending
portion of
large intestine
Gallbladder
Pancreas
Duodenum of
Small small intestine
intestine
Ileum
of small
intestine
Large
intestine
Rectum
Anus
Appendix
Cecum
Bolus of food
Tongue
Epiglottis
up
Epiglottis
up
Pharynx
Glottis
Larynx
Trachea
Glottis
down
and open
Esophageal
sphincter
contracted
Epiglottis
down
Esophagus
Glottis up
and closed
To stomach
To lungs
Esophageal
sphincter
relaxed
Esophageal
sphincter
contracted
Relaxed
muscles
Contracted
muscles
Relaxed
muscles
Stomach
Protein digestion
Carbohydrate digestion
Fat digestion
Proteins
Pepsin
Small polypeptides
Lumen of
small intestine
Polysaccharides
Pancreatic amylases
Polypeptides
Pancreatic trypsin
and chymotrypsin
DNA, RNA
Pancreatic
nucleases
Nucleotides
Pancreatic carboxypeptidase
Small peptides
Disaccharidases
Monosaccharides
Amino acids
Bile salts
Fat droplets
Pancreatic lipase
Amino acids
Epithelium
of small
intestine
(brush
border)
Fat globules
Glycerol, fatty
acids, glycerides
Nucleotidases
Nucleosides
Nucleosidases
and phosphatases
Nitrogenous bases,
sugars, phosphates
5 end
Nucleoside
Nitrogenous
base
Phosphate
group
Nucleotide
3 end
Polynucleotide, or
nucleic acid
Pentose
sugar
Sugar-phosphate
backbones
Hydrogen bonds
Pili
Nucleoid
Ribosomes
Plasma
membrane
Bacterial
chromosome
Cell wall
Capsule
0.5 m
Flagella
A typical
rod-shaped
bacterium
Smooth ER
Rough ER
Nuclear
envelope
Nucleolus
NUCLEUS
Chromatin
Centrosome
Plasma
membrane
CYTOSKELETON:
Microfilaments
Intermediate
filaments
Ribosomes
Microtubules
Microvilli
Golgi apparatus
Peroxisome
In
Mitochondrion
Lysosome
Nuclear envelope
Nucleolus
Chromatin
Rough endoplasmic
reticulum
Smooth endoplasmic
reticulum
NUCLEUS
Ribosomes
Central vacuole
Golgi
apparatus
Microfilaments
Intermediate
filaments
Microtubules
Mitochondrion
Peroxisome
Plasma membrane
Cell wall
Wall of adjacent cell
CYTOSKELETON
Chloroplast
Plasmodesmata
Pili
Nucleoid
Ribosomes
Plasma
membrane
Bacterial
chromosome
Cell wall
Capsule
0.5 m
Flagella
A typical
rod-shaped
bacterium
EPITHELIAL TISSUE
Columnar epithelia, which have cells with relatively large cytoplasmic volumes, are often
located where secretion or active absorption of substances is an important function.
Simple
columnar
epithelium
Stratified
columnar
epithelium
Pseudostratified
ciliated columnar
epithelium
Cuboidal
epithelia
Simple squamous
epithelia
Basement membrane
40 m
Stratified
squamous
epithelia
CONNECTIVE TISSUE
120 m
Chondrocytes
Chondroitin
sulfate
100 m
Collagenous
fiber
Elastic
fiber
Loose
connective
tissue
Cartilage
Fibrous
connective tissue
Adipose tissue
Fat droplets
150 m
Nuclei
30 m
Blood
Bone
Central
canal
Osteon
700 m
55 m
MUSCLE TISSUE
100 m
Multiple
nuclei
Skeletal muscle
Muscle fiber
Sarcomere
Cardiac muscle
Intercalated
Nucleus
disk
50 m
Nucleus
Smooth muscle
Muscle
fibers
25 m
NERVOUS TISSUE
Neuron
Process
Cell body
Nucleus
50 m
Passive transport
Active transport
ATP
Diffusion
Facilitated diffusion
Isotonic solution
Hypotonic solution
Hypertonic solution
Animal
cell
H2O
H2O
H2O
Turgid (normal)
H2O
Shriveled
Normal
Lysed
Plant
cell
H2O
H2O
H2O
Flaccid
H2O
Plasmolyzed