Word Formation

English Lexicology
(II)
Without grammar very little can be conveyed, without vocabulary
nothing can be conveyed.
Contents
5. Word-Formation I: the Major Processes

6. Word-Formation II: the Minor Processes
7. Motivation
To be
continued
English Lexicology(II
Chapter 5 Word-Formation I:
The Major Processes
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
General Remarks
Prefixation
Suffixation
Conversion
Compounding
5.1 General Remarks
The three major processes
affixation or derivation (17.5%)
Prefixation
suffixation
conversion (10.5%)
composition or compounding (27%)
5.2 Prefixation
The definition of prefixation
Prefixation is the formation of new words by adding

prefixes to stems. Prefixes do not generally change the
word-class of the stem but only modify its meaning.
However, there is an insignificant number of classchanging prefixes
Non-class-changing prefixes: natural-unnatural, like-dislike, fairunfair

Class-changing prefixes: force-enforce, danger-endanger, formdeform, little-belittle, war-postwar, college-intercollege
5.2 Prefixation
The classification of prefixes
In some reference books, prefixes (and suffixes)

are classified according to their source, but this
does not seem to help from a practical point of
view. It seems more helpful to classify the most
important productive prefixes by their meaning
into the following ten categories:
5.2 Prefixation
1) Negative prefixes
a-/an- amoral, asexual, atheism, anacid, anarchy,

dis-
dishonest, discontent, discover, disobey, disagree
in-
Incomplete, inconsistent, incorrect, invulnerable,

illogical, illegal, impolite, immoral, imbalance,
irrational, irregular
non-
nonviolent, non-cooperation, nonautomatic,

nonadjustable, nonalcoholic
un-
uninformative, unexpected, unease, unrest
5.2 Prefixation
Order
Literate
Symmetry
Governmental
Relevant
Productive
Believable
Vulnerable
Sane
Related
Aligned
Mature
Disorder
Illiterate
Asymmetry
Nongovernmental
Irrelevant
Unproductive
Unbelievable
Invulnerable
Insane
Unrelated
Nonaligned
Immature
5.2 Prefixation
2) Reversative or privative
de-
defrost, deregulation, degeneration, deformed,

denationalize
un-
undo, unpack, untie, unwrap, unmask
dis- disconnect, dishearten, disinterested
5.2 Prefixation
Centralize
Plane
Infect
Zip
Regulate
Possess
Pollute
Decentralize
Deplane
Disinfect
Unzip
Deregulate
Dispossess
Depollute
10
5.2 Prefixation
3) Pejorative prefixes
mis-
misguide, misapplication, misbehavior, mischoice,

misgiving
mal-
maladjustment, maldigestion, malfunction,

maldevelopment
pseudo- pseudonym, pseudoscience, pseudoclassic,

pseudo-friend
11
5.2 Prefixation
4) Prefixes of degree or size
hyper- hyperactive, hypercritical, hyperaggressive, hypercautious

ultra-
ultramodern, ultrasecret, ultraclean, ultrasonic, ultraconservative
mini-
minibus, minicamera, miniskirt
out-
outdo, outgrown, outlive
over-
overwork, overestimate, overemphasize, overabundance, overburden
under- underdeveloped, underpopulation, undergraduate

super- supermarket, superpower, superstar
sub-
subadult, subtitle, subbreed, subatom
12
5.2 Prefixation
Computer
Critical
Conscious
Natural
Sensitive
Simple
Number
Statement
culture
Minicomputer
Ultracritic /hypercritic
Subconscious
Supernatural
Hypersensitive/ultrasensitive
Oversimple
Outnumber
Understatement
Subculture
13
5.2 Prefixation
5) Prefixes of orientation and attitude
co-
Co-author, co-star, co-prosperity, cooperation
counter- Counterexample, counterclaim, counteractive,

counterattack, counterculture, countermeasure
anti-
anti-abortion, anti-art, antiwar, antibacterial,

antisocial, anticancer, antibody
pro-
pro-American, pro-revolutionary, pro-Fascism , prostudent, proslavery
14
5.2 Prefixation
6) Locative prefixes
fore-
forearm, foreleg, forename, foreword
inter- international, intergovernmental, intertwine,

interdisciplinary, intercollege
trans- transatlantic, transoceanic, transform, transplant
tele-
telephone, telegram, telecommunication
15
5.2 Prefixation
View
Conference
Continental
Ground
Cast
Specific
Racial
Shore
Interview
teleconference
Intercontinental
Foreground
Telecast
Transpacific
Transracial
Foreshore
16
5.2 Prefixation
7) Prefixes of time and order
ex-
ex-husband, ex-president, ex-colony, ex-convict
fore- foresee, foretell, forefather, forewarn

pre-
premature, prewar, prehistoric, prepay, premarital
post- post-election, postwar, postgraduate, postdoctoral
17
5.2 Prefixation
8) Number prefixes
uni-/mono-
unilateral, unicell, unicircuit, unicolor, unicycle,

unidimensional, uniform, unipolar, monoxide,
monocrystal, monogamy, monologue
bi-/di-
bicycle, bilingual, bimonthly, dioxide, dialogue, dichotomy,

disyllable
tri-
triangular, triatomic, trimonthly, trilateral, trilingual
multi-/poly-
multipurpose, multipolar, multiangular, multilingual,

polyatomic, polycrystal, polygamy
semi-
semicircle, semiliterate, semivowel, semiannual,

semicolony, semiautomatic
18
5.2 Prefixation
Lingual
Lateral
Polar
Dimensional
Unilingual, bilingual,
trilingual, multilingual
Unilateral, bilateral,
trilateral, multilateral
Unipolar, bipolar, tripolar,
multipolar
Unidimensional,
bidimensional,
tridimensional (threedimensional),
multidimensional
19
5.2 Prefixation
9) Conversion prefixes
a-
aloud, asleep, aglow, awash
be-
belittle, bestir, befriend, bewitch
en-
endanger, enforce, enable, embody, embitter, empower
20
5.2 Prefixation
10) Miscellaneous prefixes
Extra- Extralinguistic, extraordinary, extraterrestrial

Neo-
Neo-classicism,neo-colonialism, neo-fascism,
Neolithic
Pan-
Pan-Pacific, Pan-Arabism, Pan-Africanism
..
21
5.3 Suffixation
The definition of suffixation
Suffixation is the formation of new words by

adding suffixes to stems. Unlike prefixes which
primarily change the meaning of the stem,
suffixes have only a small semantic role, their
primary function being to change the
grammatical function of stems. In other words,
they mainly change the word class. However,
they may also add attached meaning to the stem.
22
5.3 Suffixation
The classification of suffixes
Since suffixes mainly change the word class, we

shall group suffixes on a grammatical basis into
1) noun suffixes
2) adjective suffixes
3) adverb suffixes
4) verb suffixes
23
5.3 Suffixation
1) Noun suffixes
Noun suffixes may be subdivided into the

following five kinds.
Denominal nouns (concrete or abstract)

Deverbal nouns
De-adjectival nouns
Noun and adjective suffixes
24
5.3 Suffixation
1) Noun suffixes
Denominal nouns (concrete)
-eer auctioneer, engineer, mountaineer, pamphleteer,

profiteer, racketeer
-er
Londoner, teenager, villager
-ess actress, waitress, stewardess, hostess, lioness

-let
booklet, leaflet, piglet, starlet
25
5.3 Suffixation
1) Noun suffixes
Denominal nouns (abstract)
-age
baggage, luggage, mileage, percentage
-dom
freedom, kingdom, stardom, officialdom
-ery/-ry drudgery, slavery, nunnery, nursery, machinery

-ism
idealism, optimism, individualism, consumerism
-ship
dictatorship, scholarship, friendship, sportsmanship
-ocrasy aristocracy, democracy, meritocracy

-hood
boyhood, brotherhood, neighborhood, adulthood
-ful
handful, mouthful, plateful, tubful

26
5.3 Suffixation
1) Noun suffixes
Deverbal nouns
-ant
contestant, inhabitant, assistant, informant
-ee
interviewee, addressee, appointee, nominee, employee
-er/-or
driver, employer, interviewer, computer, silencer, accelerator,

supervisor, actor, window-shopper
-ation
foundation, exploration, nomination, starvation
-ing
building, dwelling, earnings, savings, clothing, stuffing
-al
refusal, revival, survival, arrival, dismissal
-ment
amazement, arrangement, movement, government
-age
breakage, coverage, shrinkage, drainage
27
5.3 Suffixation
1) Noun suffixes
De-adjectival nouns
-ity
diversity, equality, rapidity, verbosity, responsibility,

actuality, regularity, popularity, respectability
-ness
accurateness, falseness, kindness, selfishness,

happiness, largeness, frankness, unexpectedness,
thickness, goodness
28
5.3 Suffixation
1) Noun suffixes
Nouns and adjective suffixes
-ese
Burmese, Chinese, Cantonese, officialese, journalese
-(i)an Darwinian, republican, Elizabethan, Shakespearean,

Indonesian, Russian
-ist
communist, pianist, specialist, socialist
29
5.3 Suffixation
2) Adjective Suffixes
Denominal suffixes
-ed
dogged, rugged, pointed, chocolate-flavored
-ful
delightful, successful, faithful, meaningful
-ish
childish, foolish, snobbish, Irish, Turkish
-less
homeless, hopeless, merciless, harmless
-like
childlike, ladylike, statesmanlike
-ly
friendly, cowardly, motherly, daily, weekly
-y
milky, sandy, hairy, meaty
30
5.3 Suffixation
Denominal suffixes
-ic (-atic)
ethnic, economic, historic, problematic
-ous (-ious,
-eous)
ambitious, desirous, marvelous, courageous,

erroneous, courteous
-al (-ial, -ical) accidental, professional, residential, musical,

philosophical
31
5.3 Suffixation
Deverbal suffixes
-able (-ible,
-uble)
debatable, drinkable, changeable, perishable,

permissible, visible, dissoluble, soluble
-ive (-ative,
-sive)
attractive, reflective, productive, negative,

decorative, talkative, affirmative, expansive,
explosive, decisive
32
5.3 Suffixation
3) Adverb Suffixes
-ly
smoothly, personally, extremely, publicly, naturally
-ward(s) downward, eastward, homeward, forward

-wise
clockwise, lengthwise, weatherwise, educationwise,

taxwise, moneywise
33
5.3 Suffixation
4) Verb suffixes
-ate
Originate, hyphenate
-en
Deepen, harden, strengthen, hasten
-ify
Solidify, modify, beautify, classify, identify
-ize(-ise) Symbolize, computerize, legalize, publicize,

specialize
34
5.3 Suffixation
False
Sterile
Intense
Fat
Horror
Memory
Apology
Falsify
Sterilize
Intensify
Fatten
Horrify
Memorize
Apologize
35
5.4 Conversion
The definition of conversion
Conversion is a word-formation whereby a word

of a certain word-class is shifted into a word of
another without the addition of an affix. It is also
called zero derivation( ).
36
5.4 Conversion
Major types of conversion
Noun-verb conversion
Verb-noun conversion
Adjective-noun conversion
37
5.4 Conversion
Noun-verb conversion
He elbowed his way through the crowd.

Problems snowballed by the hour.
The newspaper headlined his long record of
accomplishments.
Kissinger got the plans and helicoptered to
Camp David.
38
5.4 Conversion
Changes of pronunciation and
spelling
Abuse
Abuse
Advice
House
Use
Belief
Grief
Shelf
mouth
Advise
House
Use
Believe
Grieve
Shelve
Mouth
39
5.4 Conversion
He was admitted to the university after a threeyear wait.

This little restaurant is quite a find.
It is a good buy.
He took a close look at the machine.
doubt, smell, desire, want, attempt, hit, reply,
divide
40
5.4 Conversion
Phrasal verb-noun conversion

Right branching
Left branching
Break down
Breakdown
Break out
Outbreak
Pick up
Pick-up
Spill over
Overspill
Take over
Take-over
Start up
Upstart
Get together
Get-together
Put in
Input
Keep up
upkeep
Break through Breakthrough
41
5.4 Conversion
Shift of stress
Conflict
Abstract
Contrast
Decrease
Discount
Export
Rebel
Permit
Progress
Protest
Transfer
Transplant
Survey
Torment
42
5.4 Conversion
Partial conversion
Complete conversion
43
5.4 Conversion
Partial conversion
Denoting a quality or a state common to a group of person: the

deaf, the blind, the poor, the wounded
Denoting peoples of a nation (ending in sh, -se, -ch): the
English, the Chinese, the Danish, the Scotch
Denoting a quality in the abstract: a strong dislike for the
sentimental, to distinguish the false and the true, from the
sublime to the ridiculous
Denoting a single person (converted from participles): the
accused, the deceased, the deserted, the condemned
44
5.4 Conversion
Complete conversion
A native, two natives, a returned native

He is a natural for the job.
Tom is one of our regulars, he comes in for a drink
about this time every night.
To them she is not a brusque crazy, but appropriately
passionate.
They are the creatives in the advertising department.
45
5.5 Compounding
The definition of compounding
Composition or compounding is a wordformation process consisting of joining two or

more bases to form a new unit, a compound
word. It is a common device which has been
productive at every period of the English
language. Today the largest number of new
words are formed by compounding.
46
5.5 Compounding
Forms of compounds
Solid: bedtime, honeymoon

Hyphenated: above-mentioned, town-planning
Open: reading material, hot line
47
5.5 Compounding
Types of compounds
Noun compounds
Adjective compounds
Verb compounds
48
5.5 Compounding
Noun compounds
Headache, housekeeping, hot line, swimming

pool, raindrop, breakdown, biological clock,
identity crisis
49
5.5 Compounding
Adjective compounds
Weather-beaten rocks, peaceloving people,

everlasting friendship, a difficult-to-operate
machine, a made-up story, an on the spot
inspection, taxfree products, fire-proof dress
50
5.5 Compounding
Verb compounds
Formed by back-formation
house-keep from housekeeper

windowshop from window-shopping
mass produce from mass production
hen-peck from hen-pecked
spoon-feed from spoon-fed.
51
5.5 Compounding
Verb compounds
Formed by conversion
to blue-print, to cold-shoulder, to outline, to

honeymoon, to snowball, to chain-smoke, to sweettalk, to job-hop.
52
Chapter 6 Word-Formation II:

The Minor Processes
6.1 Blending
6.2
Backformation
6.3 Shortening
6.4 Analogy
6.1 Blending
The definition of blending
Blending is a process of wordformation in which a new word is formed by

combining parts of two words. The result of such
a process is called a blend or telescopic word or
portmanteau word. Blending is thus a process of
both compounding and abbreviation. Structurally
blends may be divided into four types (see page
45-46).
54
6.1 Blending
Examples
newscast (news broadcast)

brunch (breakfast lunch)
smog (smoke fog)
talkathon (talk marathon)
slimnastics (slim gymnastics)
videophone ( video telephone)
55
6.1 Blending
sci-fi
hi-fi
workaholic
stagflation
Unicom
sitcom
motel
dawk
science fiction
high fidelity
work alcoholic
stagnation inflation
United Communications
situation comedy
motor hotel
dove hawk
56
6.2 Backformation
The definition of backformation
Back-formation is a process of word-formation

by which a word is created by the deletion of a
supposed suffix. It is also known as a reverse
derivation.
57
6.2 Backformation
Examples
edit from editor

automate from automation
enthuse from enthusiasm
gloom from gloomy
donate from donation
brainwash from brainwashing
sleep-walk from sleep-walking
58
6.3 Shortening
Types of shortening or abbreviation
1) clipped words: those created by clipping part

of the word (usually a noun), leaving only a piece
of the old word. The clipped form is normally
regarded as informal.
59
6.3 Shortening
2) initialisms: a type of shortening, using the

first letters of words to form a proper name, a
technical term, or a phrase; an initialism is
pronounced letter by letter.
60
6.3 Shortening
3) acronyms: words formed from the initial

letters of words and pronounced as words.
Acronyms differ from initialisms in that they are
pronounced as words rather than as sequences
of letters.
61
6.3 Shortening
1) Clipped words
ad=advertisement
expo=exposition
phone=telephone
pro=professional
memo=memorandum
tec=detective
heli or copter=helicopter
comfy=comfortable
62
6.3 Shortening
Give clippings for the
following words
gymnasium
dormitory
handkerchief
gasoline
kilogram
influenza
business
parachute
refrigerator
taxicab
gym
dorm
hanky
Gas
kilo
flu
biz
chute
fridge
taxi or cab
63
6.3 Shortening
2) Initialisms
IOC=International Olympic Committee

BBC=British Broadcasting Corporation
ISBN=International Standard Book Number
CAD=computer assisted design
cm=centimeter
TB=tuberculosis
64
6.3 Shortening
Write out in full the following
CPU
central processing unit
initialisms
DIY
CEO
IT
AI
SOS
IDD
GMT
VIP
P.S.
a.m.
p.m.
Do it yourself
Chief Executive Officer
Information technology
artificial intelligence
Save our ship
international direct dial
Greenwich Mean Time
very important person
postscript
ante meridiem
post meridiem
65
6.3 Shortening
3) Acronyms
Basic=Beginners All-purpose Symbolic

Instruction
TEFL=teaching English as a foreign language
UNESCO=the United Nations Educational,
Scientific and Cultural Organization
Sars=Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome
66
6.3 Shortening
Write out in full the following acronyms
Tofel
ROM
NATO
FIFA
Aids
radar
Test of English as a foreign language

read only memory
The North Atlantic Treaty organization
Federation Internationale de Football
Acquired Immune Deficiency syndrome
Radio detecting and ranging
67
6.4 Analogy
The definition of analogy
The process by which words or phrases are

created or re-formed according to the existing
patterns in the language
68
6.4 Analogy
Examples
Marathon-----telethon, talkathon
blue-collar workers-----white-collar workers, gray-collar
workers, pink-collar workers, gold-collar workers
environmental pollution-----visual or eye pollution, noise
pollution, cultural pollution, graffiti pollution
First Family-----First Lady, First Dog
Landscape-----moonscape, marscape
Birds eye------fish-eye, worms-eye, cats-eye
69
Chapter 7 Motivation
7.1 Conventionality and
Motivation
7.2 Onomatopoeic
motivation
7.3 Morphological
motivation
7.4 Semantic motivation
7.5 Logical motivation
7.1 Conventionality and Motivation
Triangle of significance
Meaning
(Concept)
Word
Form. Referent
71
The debate over the connection

between sound and meaning
The naturalists maintain there is a

natural/intrinsic connection between sound and
meaning.
The Conventionalists, on the other hand, hold
that the relations between sound and meaning
are conventional and arbitrary. The meaning of a
word is a kind of linguistic social contract.
72
Conventionality
Whats in a name? That we call a rose

By any other name would smell as sweet.
-----Shakespeare: Romeo and Juliet
Words have no meaning, people have meaning
for them.
------ Eric Partridge
73
Conventionality
---Chinese
---Japanese
arbre---French
baun---Germany
74
Motivation
Motivation deals with the connection between

name (word-symbol) and its sense (meaning). It
is the relationship between the word structure
and its meaning.
75
Non-motivated and motivated
From the point of view of motivation, the great

majority of English words are nonmotivated,
since they are conventional, arbitrary symbols.
However, there is a small group of words that
can be described as motivated, that is, a direct or
somewhat connection between the symbol and
its sense can be readily observed.
76
Examples of motivation
The pigeon coos.

airmail, miniskirt, hopeless
a coat of paint
He has a stony heart.
The question was like the Sphinxs riddle to
them.
77
Types of motivation
Onomatopoeic motivation
Morphological motivation
Semantic motivation
Logical motivation
Motivation and Culture
78
7.2 Onomatopoeic motivation
Onomatopoeic motivation
means defining the principle of motivation by
sound. Words motivated phonetically are called
onomatopoeic words, whose pronunciation
suggests the meaning. They show a close
connection between sound and sense.
79
Primary onomatopoeia
Primary onomatopoeia means the imitation of

sound by sound. Here the sound is truly an
echo to the sense.
80
Primary onomatopoeia
cats
mew, purr
lions
roar
eagles
scream
mice
squeak
frogs
croak
Snakes
hiss
hens
cluck
wolves
howl
(For more examples, see page 60-61)
81
Secondary onomatopoeia
Secondary onomatopoeia means that certain

sounds and sound-sequences are associated
with certain senses. In other words, certain
sounds evoke symbolic connotations,
suggesting particular senses.
82
Secondary onomatopoeia
-are suggests big light or noise
-ump suggests protuberance
Plump, chump, rump, hump, stump, dump, mump
sk- suggests touching or moving on the surface
Blare, flare, glare, stare
Skate, skim, skin, ski, sketch, skid
h- suggests moving with great speed, force, or violence
Heavy, haste, hurry, hit, hurl, hammer, hinder
83
But it has to be pointed out that onomatopoeic

words constitute only a small part of the
vocabulary; some onomatopoeic words are not
completely motivated phonetically and are
conventional to quite a large extent. If you throw
a stone into water, the sound you hear is by no
means the same as when you say splash. Flies
do not exactly make the sound of buzz.
84
7.3 Morphological motivation
We say the word is morphologically motivated,

for a direct connection can be observed between
the morphemic structure of the word and its
meaning. This is called morphological
motivation(
85
7.3 Morphological motivation
Derivational words are morphologically motivated. If one

knows the meaning of the affix and the base, then one can
immediately tell the meaning of the word.
Compounds words may be morphologically motivated too.
The meanings of words like good-looking, spaceman,
moonscape, daydream and many others derive from the
combined meaning of the component parts.
One thing worth pointing out is that the morphemes, the
component parts of these words are themselves
conventional.
86
Semantic motivation refers to

the mental association suggested by the
conceptual meaning of a word. It explains the
connection between the literal sense and
figurative sense of the word. Here it is the
figurative usage that provides the semantic
motivation.
87
Examples:
When we speak of a stony heart we are

comparing the heart with a stone.
when we say the leg of a table, we are comparing
the tables leg with one of the lower limbs of a
human being.
88
Types of semantic motivation
Metaphor
Metonymy
Synecdoche
Analogy
89
Metaphor
Metaphor is a figure of speech

containing an implied comparison, in which a
word or phrase ordinarily and primarily used of
one thing is applied to another. It is a simile
without like or as.
90
Metaphor
The world is a stage.

A sea of troubles; a tide of popular applause.
The city is a jungle where no body is safe after
the dark.
Some books are to be tasted, others swallowed,
and some few to be chewed and digested.
----- Bacon Of Studies
91
Metonymy
Metonymy is the device in which we

name something by one of its attributes. The
substitution of the name of one thing for that of
another with which it is closely associated.
92
Metonymy
Metonymy usually includes several classes:

container for its content, a thing closely
associated for another, tool for the doer or deed,
writer for his works, the concrete for the abstract
and so on.
93
Metonymy
He is too fond of bottles.

The hall applauded.
I have never read Li Bai.
The pen is mightier than the sword.
He succeeded to the crown.
Uncle Sam; the Pentagon; Hollywood; the White
House;Beijing
94
Synecdoche
Synecdoche means using a part for a

whole, an individual for a class, a material for a
thing, or vice versa, the whole for a part.
95
Synecdoche
There are about 500 hands working in this

factory.
This newspaperand probably the countrywill
wait its time and see how the new faces perform
before judging them.
The birds sing to welcome the smiling year.
To earn ones bread
He is a clever creature .
96
Analogy
Analogy is a process whereby words

or phrases are created in imitation of existing
patterns in the language. The motivation is that
the meaning or sense of the created word shares
similarity with the existing language pattern.
97
Analogy
Color: black list---white list, gray list; blue-color

workers---white-collar workers, gray-collar workers, pinkcollar workers, and gold-collar workers
Number: the First World---the Second World, the Third
world, the Fourth World
Place and space: landscape---moonscape, marscape;
sunrise---earthrise; spaceman---earthman, moonman
98
Analogy
Similarity: missile gap---generation gap,

development gap, income gap, credibility gap
Antonym: hot line---cold line; baby boom---baby
bust; nightmare---daymare; cold-war---hot war;
high-rise---low-rise
99
Logical motivation deals with

the problem of defining a concept by means of
logic. It means, first, identify the concept of a
genus , second, to identify the
attributes distinguishing one species
from other similar species in the same genus.
100
Compounds combining species

and genus
Crisis---economical crisis, financial crisis,

spiritual crisis, ecological crisis, credit crisis,
military crisis, identity crisis
Relations---international relations, business
relations, diplomatic relations, bilateral relations
101
Clipped compounds by
shortening species or genus
drug from narcotic or hallucinogenic drug
He is addicted to drugs
pill from birth control pill

The Hill from the Capitol Hill
Nobel from Nobel Prize
102
7.6 Motivation and Culture
Relation
Motivation is closely related to culture and

history. In English, some words are endowed
with rich cultural connotations. Words that
epitomize cultural history are call culturallybound words or allusive words. These words
originated from religion, mythology, history and
literature.
103
forbidden fruit: sth. alluring but prohibited

because of terrible consequences
Odyssey: a long, adventurous journey
the last straw: the last thing that leads one to a
final loss of patience, temper, trust, or hope
Waterloo: a final, crushing defeat,eg. meet one's
Waterloo
Uncle Tom: a person who compromises and
conforms
104
Prometheus unbound:an overwhelming power

Solomon: a wise man
Sphinx: A puzzling or mysterious person or
thing. Eg. a Sphinxs riddle: a puzzling,
mysterious question, problem.
105
Judas: One who betrays another under the guise of

friendship. Judas kiss: a malicious intention under
the guise of intimacy and friendship
pound of flesh: legal but unreasonable demand or
claim
white elephant: A rare, expensive possession that is
a financial burden to maintain, no longer wanted
106
The naked truth was fully revealed through a newspaper.

-----He told us about his adventures last night. Its a pity
you were not there.
-----Arabian Nights only. Dont believe him.
Like an Apollo, he comes and arrests everyones
attention in the hall.
No cross, no crown
To quest for full citizenship is really an Odyssey for
Afro-Americans.
107
A non-native learner should have

relevant background knowledge
about the target languages history,
geography, customs, habits,
knowledge about the Bible and
Christianity.
108
National psychology
To take French leave

Double Dutch; Dutch bargain; Dutch courage;
Dutch comfort; Dutch treat; to go Dutch; to talk
Dutch; Im a Dutchman if .
109
Religious Philosophy
As poor as a church-mouse
As patient as Job
As wise as Solomon
110
as strong as a horse
as dump as an oyster;as
silent as the grave; as close
as wax
spring up like a mushroom
like a cat on hot bricks
Its no use crying over spilt
milk.
As timid as a rabbit
111

Word Formation

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English Lexicology

5. Word-Formation I: the Major Processes

5.1 General Remarks

The three major processes

affixation or derivation (17.5%)

The definition of prefixation

Prefixation is the formation of new words by adding

Non-class-changing prefixes: natural-unnatural, like-dislike, fairunfair

The classification of prefixes

In some reference books, prefixes (and suffixes)

a-/an- amoral, asexual, atheism, anacid, anarchy,

dishonest, discontent, discover, disobey, disagree

Incomplete, inconsistent, incorrect, invulnerable,

nonviolent, non-cooperation, nonautomatic,

uninformative, unexpected, unease, unrest

defrost, deregulation, degeneration, deformed,

undo, unpack, untie, unwrap, unmask

dis- disconnect, dishearten, disinterested

misguide, misapplication, misbehavior, mischoice,

maladjustment, maldigestion, malfunction,

pseudo- pseudonym, pseudoscience, pseudoclassic,

4) Prefixes of degree or size

hyper- hyperactive, hypercritical, hyperaggressive, hypercautious

ultramodern, ultrasecret, ultraclean, ultrasonic, ultraconservative

minibus, minicamera, miniskirt

outdo, outgrown, outlive

overwork, overestimate, overemphasize, overabundance, overburden

under- underdeveloped, underpopulation, undergraduate

subadult, subtitle, subbreed, subatom

5) Prefixes of orientation and attitude

Co-author, co-star, co-prosperity, cooperation

counter- Counterexample, counterclaim, counteractive,

anti-abortion, anti-art, antiwar, antibacterial,

pro-American, pro-revolutionary, pro-Fascism , prostudent, proslavery

forearm, foreleg, forename, foreword

inter- international, intergovernmental, intertwine,

telephone, telegram, telecommunication

7) Prefixes of time and order

ex-husband, ex-president, ex-colony, ex-convict

fore- foresee, foretell, forefather, forewarn

premature, prewar, prehistoric, prepay, premarital

post- post-election, postwar, postgraduate, postdoctoral

unilateral, unicell, unicircuit, unicolor, unicycle,

bicycle, bilingual, bimonthly, dioxide, dialogue, dichotomy,

triangular, triatomic, trimonthly, trilateral, trilingual

multipurpose, multipolar, multiangular, multilingual,

semicircle, semiliterate, semivowel, semiannual,

aloud, asleep, aglow, awash

belittle, bestir, befriend, bewitch

endanger, enforce, enable, embody, embitter, empower

10) Miscellaneous prefixes

Extra- Extralinguistic, extraordinary, extraterrestrial

Pan-Pacific, Pan-Arabism, Pan-Africanism

The definition of suffixation

Suffixation is the formation of new words by

The classification of suffixes

Since suffixes mainly change the word class, we

Noun suffixes may be subdivided into the

Denominal nouns (concrete or abstract)

-eer auctioneer, engineer, mountaineer, pamphleteer,

Londoner, teenager, villager

-ess actress, waitress, stewardess, hostess, lioness

booklet, leaflet, piglet, starlet

baggage, luggage, mileage, percentage