FOUNDATION CHEMISTRY I

CHM092

CHAPTER 1
MATTER AND
STOICHIOMETRY

PREPARED BY
SYED ABDUL ILLAH ALYAHYA

Main Topics
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4

Matter
Naming of Compounds
Stoichiometry
Concentrations of Solutions

1.1 Matter
1.1.1
1.1.2
1.1.2
1.1.3
1.1.4

Matter
Daltons Atomic Theory
Atom/Elements
Molecules
Ions

Matter
Matter is anything that takes up space and has mass.
All matter is made of atoms

Macroscopic

Microscopic

A combination of scanning transmission electron microscopy and atomicresolution spectroscopic techniques are able to capture a single atom of
material

Classifications of Matter
Elements and compounds.
An element is a substance that cannot be
separated into simpler substances by chemical
means.
114 elements have been identified
82 elements occur naturally on Earth
32 elements have been created by scientists
technetium, americium, seaborgium

A compound is a substance composed of atoms of two

or more elements chemically united in fixed proportions.
Compounds can only be separated into their pure
components (elements) by chemical means.

Classifications of Matter
Substances and mixtures.
A substance is a form of matter that has a definite
composition and distinct properties.
A mixture is a combination of two or more substances
in which the substances retain their distinct identities.
Homogenous mixture composition of the
mixture is the same throughout
liquid nitrogen

Heterogeneous mixture composition is not uniform

throughout
cement,
iron filings in sand

The Three-States of Matter

gas

A solid has a fixed shape and volume. Solids

may be hard or soft, rigid or flexible.
A liquid has a varying shape that conforms to
the shape of the container, but a fixed volume.
A liquid has an upper surface.

A gas has no fixed shape or volume and

therefore does not have a surface.

liquid

solid

Change of State

A physical change does not alter the composition or identity

of a substance.
A chemical change alters the composition or identity of the
substance(s) involved.

Daltons Atomic Theory

1808- John Dalton postulated about
atom

1. matter is made up of tiny atoms

2. atoms of the same element are
identical
3. atoms combine in definite ratios
to form compounds.
4. atom is neither created nor
destroyed in chemical reaction

This set aside false idea promoted by Aristotle 2000 years earlier that matter
was continuous, and reaffirmed Democrituss early atomic model.

Atoms
All atoms are made up of subatomic particles
which are identical in all atoms
Consists of a nucleus surrounded by electron
cloud
Nucleus of an atom are called nucleons
Nucleons consists of protons and neutrons

Atomic Structure

Atomic Structure
Protons and neutrons vibrate, but are basically
motionless.
The nucleus is very tiny compared to the atom as
a whole, taking up less than 1% of the total
volume
Electrons are located relatively far from the
nucleus in energy levels where they move
randomly at very high speeds creating shells
These electron clouds make up more than 99%
of the volume of an atom, but almost none of the
mass.

Atomic Structure
Properties of the Three Key Subatomic Particles
Charge
Name
(Symbol)

Relative Absolute (C)*

Proton
(p+)

1+

Neutron
(n0)

Electron
(e-)

Mass
Relative
(amu)

Absolute (g)

Location in
Atom

+1.60218x10-19

1.00727

1.67262x10-24

Nucleus

1.00866

1.67493x10-24

Nucleus

1-

-1.60218x10-19

0.00054858 9.10939x10-28

Outside
nucleus

mass p mass n 1840 x mass e-

Just Imagine!

If the atom is the Houston Astrodome, then the

nucleus is a marble on the 50-yard line.

Atomic Structure
Atomic Number or Proton Number
Each element has a unique number of protons in
its nucleus
The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom is
Atomic number (Z) = number of protons in nucleus
called
the(A)atomic
(Z)of neutrons
Mass number
= number of number
protons + number
the elements
are arranged
the Periodic Table in
= atomic number
(Z) + numberon
of neutrons
order of their atomic numbers
Isotopes are atoms of the same element (X) with different numbers of neutrons in their

nuclei name and symbol

Each element has a unique

symbol either one or two letters

one capital letter or one capital letter and one lowercase
letter

Atomic number (Z) = number of protons in nucleus

Mass number (A) = number of protons + number of neutrons
= atomic number (Z) + number of neutrons
Isotopes are atoms of the same element (X) with different numbers of neutrons in their
nuclei

Atomic Structure
Nucleon Number or Mass Number
The nucleon number (A) is the total number of
protons and neutrons in the nucleus
Atomic number (Z) = number of protons in nucleus
Neutrons act as a type of insulation between the
Mass number (A) = number of protons + number of neutrons
protons,
preventing them from repelling each other.
= atomic number (Z) + number of neutrons
Isotopes are atoms of the same element (X) with different numbers of neutrons in their
nuclei

Isotopes
Isotopes are atoms of the same element having the same
number of protons
Isotopes of an element have different masses
Isotopes of an element have different numbers of neutrons
Atomic number (Z) = number of protons in nucleus
Mass
Isotopes
are identified by their mass numbers, which is
number (A) = number of protons + number of neutrons
the sum of all the protons and neutrons in the nucleus
= atomic number (Z) + number of neutrons
All isotopes of an element are chemically identical
Isotopes are atoms of the same element (X) with different numbers of neutrons in their
undergo the exact samenuclei
chemical reactions
Isotopes have different physical properties such as melting
point, boiling point, density and rate of diffusion

Isotopes
Isotopes and Isotopic Abundance
A few elements such as fluorine and aluminium exists
only in one isotope
Fluorine-19 and Aluminium-27 (100% relative abundance)
Atomic
number
(Z) = number of
in nucleus
the percentage
ofprotons
an element
that is one isotope is called the
isotopes
natural
Mass number
(A) = number
of abundance
protons + number of neutrons

Most elements
exists (Z)
as+ number
mixtures
of two or more naturally
= atomic number
of neutrons
occurring isotopes
Isotopes are atoms of the same element (X) with different numbers of neutrons in their
there are two isotopes of chlorine
nuclei found in nature, one that has a
mass of about 35 amu (75.5%) and the other about 37 amu
(24.5%)
The abundance of each isotope in the mixture is called its
isotopic abundance

The observed mass is a weighted average of the weights

of all the naturally occurring atoms
Thus, the atomic mass of chlorine is 35.45 amu

Isotopes
Isotope Uranium
Atomic number
Number of protons= 92
Z

Mass Number
Protons + neutrons = 235
whole number
A

Abundance = relative
amount found in a sample

Elements
Most elements have single atoms as their constituent
particles
The atoms may be physically attracted to each other, but
are not chemically bonded together

Model of the face-centered cubic crystal structure of copper showing one

unit cell. Distance between centers of corner atoms is 3.6 angstroms

Molecular Elements
A few elements have molecules as their constituent
particles
The molecules are made of two or more atoms (same
atom) chemically bonded together by covalent bonds

Molecules
A molecule is an aggregate of two or more
atoms (same atoms or different atom) in a specific
geometrical arrangement held together by
chemical forces.
attachments are called bonds
attachments come in different strengths

come in different shapes and patterns

Molecules
Elements/atoms combine together to make an almost
limitless number of compounds
The properties of the compound are totally different from
the constituent elements
Property

Sodium

Melting point

Chlorine

Sodium Chloride

97.8C

-101C

801C

Boiling point

881.4C

-34C

1413C

Color

Silvery

Yellow-green

Colorless (white)

Density

0.97 g/cm3

0.0032 g/cm3

2.16 g/cm3

Behavior in water

Reacts

Dissolves slightly

Dissolves freely

Reacting Atoms
When elements undergo chemical reactions, the reacting
atoms do not turn into other elements
Statement 4 of Daltons Atomic Theory

This requires that all the atoms present when you start the
reaction will still be there after the reaction
Because the number of protons determines the kind of
element, the number of protons in the atom does not
change in a chemical reaction
However, many reactions involve transferring electrons
from one atom to another

Charged Atoms
When atoms gain or lose electrons, they acquire a charge
Charged atoms or groups of atoms are called ions
When atoms gain electrons, they become negatively
charged ions, called anions
When atoms lose electrons, they become positively
charged ions, called cations
Ions behave much differently than the neutral atoms
e.g., the metal sodium, made of neutral Na atoms, is highly reactive
and quite unstable; however, the sodium cations, Na+, found in table
salt are very nonreactive and stable

Because materials such as table salt are neutral, there must

be equal amounts of charge from cations and anions in them

Charged Atoms
Nonmetals form anions
For each negative charge, the ion has one more electron
than the neutral atom
F = 9 p+ and 9 e, F = 9 p+ and 10 e
P = 15 p+ and 15 e, P3 = 15 p+ and 18 e

Metals form cations

For each positive charge, the ion has one less electron
than the neutral atom
Na atom = 11 p+ and 11 e, Na+ ion = 11 p+ and 10 e
Ca atom = 20 p+ and 20 e, Ca2+ ion = 20 p+ and 18 e

Ion Charge
The charge on an ion can often be determined from an
elements position on the Periodic Table
Metals always form positively charged cations
For many main group metals, the charge = the group
number
Nonmetals form negatively charged anions
For nonmetals, the charge = the group number 8

Ion Charge

Compound
a substance composed of two or more elements which are
chemically combined (electrovalent or covalent)

Compound
Ionic Compounds
Compounds of metals with nonmetals are made of ions
metal atoms form cations, nonmetal atoms form anions
Each cation is surrounded by anions and vice-versa
No individual molecule units, instead they have a 3dimensional array of cations and anions made of formula
units

Table salt contains an array of Na+ ions and Cl- ions

Compound
Molecular Compounds
Compounds are composed of individual molecule units
Each molecule contains atoms (non-metal) of different
elements chemically attached by covalent bonds

Propane contains
individual C3H8
molecules

Compound
Ionic Compounds Contains polyatomic Ions
Compound contains polyatomic ions
several atoms attached together by covalent bonds into
one ion

Mixture
A group of two or more elements and/or
compounds that are physically intermingled.

Checkpoint 1
The scenes below represent an atomic-scale view of
substance A undergoing two different changes. Decide
whether each scene shows a physical or a chemical change.

Checkpoint 2
Classify each of the following as either an Atomic Element,
Molecular Element, Molecular Compound, or Ionic Compound

Argon, Ar
Barium chloride, BaCl2
Phosphorus, P4
Acetone, C3H6O
Calcium phosphate, Ca3(PO4)2
Nikel, Ni

Checkpoint 3
The following scenes represent an atomic-scale view of
three samples of matter. Describe each sample as an
element, compound, or mixture.

1.2 Naming of Chemical

Compounds
1.2.1
1.2.2

1.2.3
1.2.4
1.2.5
1.2.6
1.2.7

Naming Binary Ionic Compound for

Metals with Invariant Charge
Naming Binary Ionic Compound for
Metals with Variable Charges
Naming Compound Containing
Polyatomic Ions
Acid Nomenclature
Naming Binary Molecular Compounds
of Two Nonmetals
Naming Hydrated Compounds
Basic Nomeclature

Rules for Naming Binary Ionic Compounds

for Metals with Invariant Charge
Consists of metal (cation) and nonmetal (anion)
Metal listed first and followed by nonmmetal in formula
1.
2.
3.

name metal cation first, name nonmetal anion second

cation name should use the metal name itself
nonmetal anion named by changing the ending on the nonmetal
name to -ide

Naming Metal Cations (Invariant Charge)

Metals with invariant charge,
metals whose ions can only
have one possible charge

Naming Monatomic Nonmetal Anion

Determine the charge from position on the Periodic Table

To name anion, change ending on the element name to
ide

Example 1: Naming Binary Ionic with Invariant

Charge Metal CsF
1.

2.

3.
4.

Identify cation and anion

Cs = Cs+ because it is Group 1A
F = F because it is Group 7A
Name the cation
Cs+ = cesium
Name the anion
F = fluoride
Write the cation name first, then the anion name
Cesium fluoride

Checkpoint 4

Name the ionic compound formed from each of the

following pairs of elements:
(a) Bromine and strontium

(b) Rubidium and sulfur

(c) Beryllium and oxygen

Checkpoint 5
Name the ionic compound from each of the following
chemical formulas:
(a) K3N
(b) ScCl3
(c) Al2S3

(d) LiH

Rules for Naming Binary Ionic Compounds

for Metals with Variable Charge
Consists of metal (cation) and nonmetal anion
Metal listed first in formula and name
1.
2.

name metal cation first, name nonmetal anion second

metal cation name is the metal name followed by a Roman numeral
in parentheses to indicate its charge
determine charge from anion charge
common ions Table 3.4
3. nonmetal anion named by changing the ending on the nonmetal
name to -ide

Naming Metal Cations (Variable Charges)

Metals with variable
Charges
metals whose ions
can have more than
one possible charge
determine charge
by charge on anion
and cation
name = metal name
with Roman
numeral charge in
parentheses

Example 2: Naming binary ionic with variable

charge metal CuF2
1. Identify the cation and anion
F = F because it is Group 7
Cu = Cu2+ to balance the two () charges from 2 F

2. Name the cation

Cu2+ = copper(II)

3. Name the anion

F = fluoride

4. Write the cation name first, then the anion name

copper(II) fluoride

Checkpoint 6
Name the ionic compound formed from each of the
following pairs of elements:
(a) Bromine and chromium (II)
(b) Cobalt (III) and sulfur
(c) Fluorine and copper (II)

(d) Tin (IV) and oxygen

Checkpoint 7
Name the ionic compound from each of the following
chemical formulas:
a) VI3
b) MnS2
c) PbCl4

d) Hg2Br2

Rules for Naming Compounds Containing

Polyatomic Ions
Polyatomic ions are single ions that contain more than one
atom
Often identified by parentheses around ion in formula
Name and charge of polyatomic ion do not change
Name any ionic compound by naming cation first and then
anion

Polyatomic Cations and Anions

Formula

Name

Formula

Name

Common Cations
NH4+

ammonium

H 3 O+

hydronium

CH3NH3+

metylammonium

NH3+OH

hydroxylammonium

Common Anions

CH3COOCNOHClOClO2ClO3NO2NO3MnO4-

acetate
cyanide
hydroxide
hypochlorite
chlorite
chlorate
nitrite
nitrate
permanganate

CO32HCO3CrO42Cr2O72O22PO43HPO42SO32SO42-

carbonate
bicarbonate
chromate
dichromate
peroxide
phosphate
hydrogen phosphate
sulfite
sulfate

Example 3: Naming ionic compounds containing

an invariant charge metal with polyatomic ion
Na2SO4
1.

2.
3.
4.

Identify the ions

Na = Na+ because in Group 1A
SO4 = SO42 a polyatomic ion
Name the cation
Na+ = sodium, metal with invariant charge
Name the anion
SO42 = sulfate
Write the name of the cation followed by the name of the
anion
sodium sulfate

Example 4: Naming ionic compounds containing

variable charges metal with polyatomic ion
Fe(NO3)3
1.

2.
3.
4.

Identify the ions

NO3 = NO3 a polyatomic ion
Fe = Fe3+ to balance the charge of the 3 NO3
Name the cation
Fe3+ = iron(III), metal with variable charge
Name the anion
NO3 = nitrate
Write the name of the cation followed by the name of the
anion
iron(III) nitrate

Example 5: Naming compounds containing

polyatomic cation and polyatomic anion
(NH4)2CO3
1.
2.

3.

Identify the cation

NH4+ = ammonium
Identify the anion
CO32 = carbonate
Write the name of the cation followed by the name of the
anion
Ammonium carbonate

Checkpoint 8
Name the polyatomic ion compound
(a) Ba(NO3)2

(b) Cu(CN)2
(c) CH3NH3Br

Periodic Pattern of Polyatomic Ions

-ate groups

Patterns in Oxyanion Nomenclature

When there are two oxyanions involving the same element:
The one with fewer oxygens ends in -ite.
NO2 : nitrite; SO32 : sulfite
The one with more oxygens ends in -ate.
NO3 : nitrate; SO42 sulfate

If the polyatomic ion have charge more than -1 for

example CO32-, PO43- or SO42- , add hydrogen in front of
ion then use hydrogen- prefix before name and neutral 1
to the charge

CO32 = carbonate HCO3 = hydrogen carbonate

SO42- = sulfate HSO4- = hydrogen sulfate
PO43- = phosphate HPO42- = hydrogen phosphate

If add another one hydrogen

PO43- = phosphate H2PO4- = Dihydrogen phosphate

2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc.

Patterns in Oxyanion Nomenclature

The one with the second fewest oxygens ends in -ite.
ClO2 : chlorite

The one with the second most oxygens ends in -ate.

ClO3 : chlorate

The one with the fewest oxygens has the prefix hypo - and
ends in -ite.
ClO : hypochlorite

The one with the most oxygens has the prefix per- and
ends in -ate.
ClO4 : perchlorate

2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc.

Acid Nomenclature
If the anion in the acid
ends in -ate, change
the ending to -ic acid.
HClO3: chloric acid
HClO4: perchloric acid

If the anion in the acid

ends in -ite, change
the ending to -ous
acid.
HClO: hypochlorous acid
HClO2: chlorous acid

Acid Nomenclature

If the anion in the acid

ends in -ide, change
the ending to -ic acid
and add the prefix
hydro- .
HCl: hydrochloric acid
HBr: hydrobromic acid
HI: hydroiodic acid

Acid Nomenclature

61

Checkpoint 9
Name the following oxoacid and oxoanion
(a) HBrO

(b) H2AsO4(c) HNO2

(d) IO4(e) CrO42(f) H2Cr2O7

Rules for Naming of Binary Molecular

Compounds of Two Nonmetals
1. Write name of first element in formula
a)
b)

element furthest left and down on the Periodic Table

use the full name of the element

2. Writes name the second element in the formula with an ide suffix
a)

as if it were an anion, however, remember these compounds do

not contain ions!

3. Use a prefix in front of each name to indicate the number

of atoms
a)

Never use the prefix mono- on the first element

Subscript Prefixes

1 = mono-

6 = hexa-

not used on first nonmetal

2 = di3 = tri4 = tetra5 = penta-

7 = hepta8 = octa9 = nona10 = deca-

Drop last a if name begins with a vowel

Example 6: Naming a binary molecular

compound SF4
1.

Name the first element

sulfur

2.

Name the second element with an ide

fluorine fluoride

3.

Add a prefix to each name to indicate the subscript

Monosulfur, tetrafluoride

4.

Write the first element with prefix, then the second

element with prefix
a)

drop prefix mono from first element

sulfur tetrafluoride

Checkpoint 10
Name the following molecular compound or write the
chemical formulas for the following molecular
compound

(a) P2O4
(b) I2F7

(c) Diboron trioxide

(d) Bromine pentachloride

Rules for Naming Hydrated Compounds

Hydrates are ionic compounds

containing a specific number of waters

for each formula unit
Water of hydration often driven off by
heating

In formula, attached waters follow

CoCl26H2O

In name attached waters indicated by

prefix+hydrate after name of ionic
compound
CoCl26H2O = cobalt(II) chloride hexahydrate
CaSO4H2O = calcium sulfate hemihydrate

CoCl26H2O

CoCl2

CuSO45H2O

CuSO4

Checkpoint 11
Name the following compound or write the chemical
formula
(a) BaCl2.2H2O
(b) LiCl.H2O
(c) Sr(NO3)2.4H2O

(d) MgSO4.7H2O

69

Basic Nomenclature
A base can be defined as a substance that yields
hydroxide ions (OH-) when dissolved in water.

Invariant
charge

Variant
charge

NaOH

Sodium hydroxide

KOH

Potassium hydroxide

Ba(OH)2

Barium hydroxide

CuOH

Copper (I) hydroxide

Cu(OH)2

Copper (II) hydroxide

Fe(OH)3

Iron (III) hydroxide

70

Checkpoint 12
Explain what is wrong with the name or formula at
the end of each statement and correct it:
(a) Ba(C2H3O2)2 barium diacetate
(b) Ammonium phosphate (NH3)4PO4
(c) Iron (II) sulfate Fe2(SO4)3
(d) Cr(NO3)3 - chromic (III) nitride
(e) Dichlorine heptaoxide Cl2O6
(f) BrCl3 Trichlorine bromide
(g) Sodium hypochlorous

71

1.3 Stoichiometry
1.3.1
1.3.2
1.3.3
1.3.4
1.3.5
1.3.6
1.3.7
1.3.8
1.3.9

Relative Atomic Mass

The Mole Concept and Avogadro
Constant
Molar Mass
Molar Volume of Gases
Percent Composition
Chemical Formula
Balanced Chemical Equations
Stoichiometric Calculations (Amount
of Reactant and Product)
Limiting Reactants, Theoretical and
Actual Yield

Relative Atomic Mass and Relative

Molecular Mass
One atomic mass unit is defined as 1/12 the mass of one
atom of the carbon-12 isotope.
The mass of single C-12 atom is 1.992 x 10-23 g. The
number of atoms C in one mole is exactly 6.022 X 1023
The relative atomic masses of all elements are found by
comparing the mass of one atom of element with the mass of
C-12 atom
The relative atomic mass of an element is defined as the
ratio of the mass of one atom of the element to 1/12 of the
mass of a C-12 atom.
Mass of one atom of the element
Relative atomic mass = 1/12 of the mass of one atom of C-12

Relative atomic mass =

Mass of one atom of the element x 12

Mass of one atom of C-12

Relative Isotopic Mass

The relative isotopic mass is the ratio of the mass of one
atom of an isotope to 1/12 of the mass of one atom of C-12
Mass of one atom of the isotope
Relative isotopic mass = 1/12 of the mass of one atom of C-12

Relative isotopic mass =

Mass of one atom of the isotope x 12

Mass of one atom of C-12

Determining Relative Atomic Mass from

Isotopic Abundance
Elements that do not have isotopes (e.g; Fluorine-19)
relative atomic mass is the same as the relative isotopic mass
Elements consists of isotopes, the relative atomic mass is
the average of the masses of its naturally occurring isotopes
weighted according to their abundances.
Atomic mass is calculated by multiplying relative isotopic
mass of each isotope by its relative abundance (fractional
abundance) and adding all these values together

Example 7: If copper is 69.17% Cu-63 with a

mass of 62.9396 amu and the rest Cu-65 with a
mass of 64.9278 amu, find the atomic mass of
copper

Cu-63 = 69.17%, 62.9396 amu

Cu-65 = 100-69.17%, 64.9278 amu
atomic mass, amu

Checkpoint 13
1. There are two isotopes of Gallium:
Ga-69 with mass 68.9256 amu and abundance of 60.11%; and
Ga-71 with mass 70.9247 amu and abundance of 39.89%.
Calculate the atomic mass of gallium.

2. The isotopic masses of Li-6 and Li-7 are given as 6.01512

amu and 7.01601 amu respectively. If the atomic mass of
Li is 6.941 amu, calculate the % abundance of the two
isotopes

3. Given that Ag-107 (51.839% abundance) and the mass

ratio : Ag-109/Ag-107 = 1.0187. Calculate the mass of Ag107. (Atomic mass of Ag = 107.87 amu)

Mole Concept and Avogadro Constant

Mole = number of particles equal to the number of atoms

in 12 g of C-12
The mass of single C-12 atom is 1.992 x 10-23 g. The
number of atoms C in one mole is exactly 6.022 X 1023

1 atom of C-12 weighs exactly 12.01 amu

1 amu = 1.66054 x 10-24 g
1 mole of C-12 weighs exactly 12.01 g
NA = Mass per mole of C-12
Mass of one atom of C-12
= 12 g/mol
1.992 x 10-23 g
= 6.022 x 1023 mol-1

The number of particles in 1 mole is called Avogadros

Number = 6.0221421 x 1023

Mole Concept and Avogadro Constant

Number of Atoms and Molecules
1 mol of copper, Cu contains 6.022 x 1023 of Cu atoms.

1 mol of water , H2O contains 6.022 x 1023 of H2O

molecules.
1 mol of MgCl2 crystal contains 6.022 x 1023 of MgCl2 formula
units.
The following relationships supply the conversion factors for the
conversions among mass in grams, amount in moles, and number of
elementary units,
Mass (gram) of substance
Mol substance = molar mass of substance (g mol-1)
Number of elementary units = mol X Avogadros No
(atoms / molecules / formula units)

Mole Concept and Avogadro Constant

Mole and Mass Relationships

1 amu = 1.66054 x 10-24 g

1 mole
sulfur
32.06 g

1 mole
carbon
12.01 g

Example 8 : Calculate the number of atoms in

2.45 mol of copper
Given:
Find:
Conceptual Plan:

2.45 mol Cu
atoms Cu
mol Cu

atoms Cu

Relationships:
1 mol = 6.022 x 1023 atoms

Solution:

Check: because atoms are small, the large number of atoms makes
sense

Example 9 : How many copper atoms are in a

penny weighing 3.10 g?
Given:
Find:
Conceptual Plan:

3.10 g Cu
atoms Cu

g Cu

mol Cu

atoms Cu

Relationships:

1 mol Cu = 63.55 g, 1 mol = 6.022 x 1023

Solution:

Check:

because the given amount is much less than 1 mol Cu, the
number makes sense

Example 10 : A silver ring contains 1.1 x 1022

silver atoms. How many moles of silver are in
the ring?
Given:
Find:

Conceptual Plan:

1.1 x 1022 atoms Ag

moles Ag
atoms Ag

mol Ag

Relationships:
1 mol = 6.022 x 1023 atoms
Solution:

Check: because the number of atoms given is less than Avogadros number,
the answer makes sense

Checkpoint 14
Calculate the number of
(i) formula units of AlF3 ,
(ii) F- ions and
(iii) Al3+ ions and
(iv) all the ions in 0.02 mol of the compound AlF3.

Molar Mass
The molar mass (M) is the mass in grams of one mole of its
entities (atoms, molecules or formula units). The unit for
molar mass is g mol-1
For monatomic elements, the molar mass is the same as
the atomic mass in grams per mole. The atomic mass is
simply read from the Periodic Table.
The molar mass of Ne = 20.18 g/mol.
For molecular elements, the molar mass of nitrogen is 2 x
14.01 = 28.02 g/mol. It is important to note that type of
particle (atom, molecule or ion). A statement such as 1 mole
of nitrogen is ambiguous, misinterpretation can mean 1 mole
nitrogen atoms (14.01 g/mol) or 1 mole of nitrogen molecules
(28.02 g/mol)

Molar Mass
Formula/Molecular Mass/Molecular weight for compound
is obtained by summing the masses of the component atoms
Molecular weight for 1 mole of Glucose C6H12O6 is MW = 180.16
g/mol)
Atoms/molecule of
compound

Carbon (C)

Hydrogen (H)

Oxygen (O)

6 atoms

12 atoms

6 atoms

12 mol of atoms

6 mol of atoms

Moles of atoms/mole 6 mol of atoms

of compound

Atoms/mole of
compound

6(6.022x1023) atoms 12(6.022x1023) atoms

6(6.022x1023) atoms

Mass/molecule of
compound

6(12.01 amu)
= 72.06 amu

12(1.008 amu)
= 12.10 amu

6(16.00 amu) =
96.00 amu

Mass/mole of
compound

72.06 g

12.10 g

96.00 g

Interconverting Moles, Mass, and Number of

Chemical Entities
no. of grams

Mass (g) = no. of moles x

1 mol

1 mol

No. of moles = mass (g) x

no. of grams

6.022x1023 entities
No. of entities = no. of moles x
1 mol
1 mol

No. of moles = no. of entities x

6.022x1023 entities

Mass-mole-number
relationships for
elements.

Amount-mass-number
relationships for
compounds.

Example 11: Find the number of CO2 molecules

in 10.8 g of dry ice
Given:
Find:

Conceptual Plan:

10.8 g CO2
molecules CO2

g CO2

mol CO2

molec CO2

Relationships:
1 mol CO2 = 44.01 g,
1 mol = 6.022 x 1023
Solution:

Check:

because the given amount is much less than 1 mol CO2, the
number makes sense

89

Example 12 How many formula units are in

50.0 g of PbO2? (PbO2 = 239.2)
Given: 50.0 g PbO2
Find: formula units PbO2
Conceptual Plan:

g PbO2

mol PbO2

units PbO2

Relationships:
1 mol PbO2 = 239.2 g,1 mol = 6.022 x 1023
Solution:

Check:

because the given amount is less than 1 mol PbO2, the

number makes sense
90

Example 13 What is the mass of 4.78 x 1024

NO2 molecules?
Given: 4.78 x 1024 NO2 molecules
Find: g NO2
Conceptual Plan:

molecules

mol NO2

g NO2

Relationships:
1 mol NO2 = 46.01 g, 1 mol = 6.022 x 1023
Solution:

Check:

because the given amount is more than Avogadros

number, the mass > 46 g makes sense
91

Checkpoint 15
Dimethylnitrosamine (CH3)2N2O is carcinogenic substance
that formed in foods, beverages or gastric juices.
a) Calculate the molar mass
b) Calculate the moles of 2.5 g of dimethylnitrosamine
c) How many atoms of nitrogen are present in 1.0 x 1016
molecules of dimethylnitrosamine
d) What is the mass in grams of one molecule of
dimethylnitrosamine

Checkpoint 16
Hemoglobin C2952H4664N812O832S8Fe4 is the oxygen carrier in
blood
(a) Calculate its molar mass
(b) An average adult has about 5.2 L of blood. Every
millimeter of blood has approximately 5.0 x 109
erythrocytes (red blood cells), and every erythrocytes has
2.8 x 108 hemoglobin molecules. Calculate the mass of
hemoglobin molecules in grams in an average adult.

Molar Volume of Gases

The elements exist in gas state, the volume occupied by one
mole of any gas is called the molar volume
At s.t.p (standard temperature and pressure), the molar gas volume
is 22.4 dm3. The condition for s.t.p are 0oC and 1 atm pressure.
At room temperature and pressure (r.t.p) (20oC and 1 atm pressure)
the molar gas volume is 24dm3

The relationship between the number of moles of a gas and

the volume of a gas is given by the formula:
Volume of gas (dm3)
Mol substance (gas) = 22.4 dm3 at s.t.p
Volume of gas (dm3)
Mol substance (gas) = 22 dm3 at r.t.p

Example 14 The decomposition of KClO3

produced 48 dm3 of oxygen gas. How many
moles of oxygen gas are there and calculate the
mass of oxygen gas.
Number of moles of O2 =

Volume of gas (dm3)

22.4 dm3 at s.t.p
48 dm3
22.4 dm3 at s.t.p

= 2.14 mol

Mass of O2 = 2.14 mol x 32g/mol = 68.6 g

Checkpoint 17
Carbon dioxide gas is obtained from the fermentation of
glucose. If 20.0 dm3 of carbon dioxide (at s.t.p) are collected,
how many atoms oxygen are present in this gas?

Percent Composition
Mass percent can also be used to calculate the mass of a
particular element in any mass of a compound.

Percentage by mass of each element in a compound

Compound:

XaYb

Mass % of element X = (atomic mass of X) x (a)

Molar mass of XaYb

Mass % of element Y = (atomic mass of Y) x (b)

Molar mass of XaYb

Percent Composition
Percent composition of an element in a compound =
n x molar mass of element
x 100%
molar mass of compound
n is the number of moles of the element in 1 mole of
the compound
%C =
%H =
%O =

C2H6O

2 x (12.01 g)

46.07 g
6 x (1.008 g)
46.07 g
1 x (16.00 g)
46.07 g

x 100% = 52.14%
x 100% = 13.13%
x 100% = 34.73%

52.14% + 13.13% + 34.73% = 100.0%

Example 15 : Find the mass percent of Cl in

C2Cl4F2
Given:
Find:

C2Cl4F2
% Cl by mass

Conceptual Plan:
Relationships:

Solution:

Check:

because the percentage is less than 100 and Cl is

much heavier than the other atoms, the number
makes sense

Percent Composition
Mass Percent as a Conversion Factor
The mass percent tells you the mass of a constituent
element in 100 g of the compound
the fact that CCl2F2 is 58.64% Cl by mass means that
100 g of CCl2F2 contains 58.64 g Cl
This can be used as a conversion factor
100 g CCl2F2 : 58.64 g Cl

Example 16 : Find the mass of table salt

containing 2.4 g of Na
Given:
Find:

2.4 g Na, 39% Na

g NaCl

Conceptual Plan:

g Na

g NaCl

Relationships:

100 g NaCl : 39 g Na
Solution:

Check: because the mass of NaCl is more than 2x the mass of

Na, the number makes sense

Example 17: Benzaldehyde contains 79.2%

carbon. What mass of benzaldehyde contains
19.8 g of C?
Given: 19.8 g C, 79.2% C
Find: g benzaldehyde
Conceptual Plan:

gC

g benzaldehyde

Relationships:

100 g benzaldehyde : 79.2 g C

Solution:

Check:

because the mass of benzaldehyde is more than the

mass of C, the number makes sense

Percent Composition
Conversion Factors in Chemical Formulas

Chemical formulas have inherent in them

relationships between numbers of atoms and
molecules
or moles of atoms and molecules

These relationships can be used to convert

between amounts of constituent elements and
molecules
like percent composition

Example 18 : Find the mass of sodium in 6.2 g of

NaCl
(Na = 22.99; Cl = 35.45)
Given:
Find:
Conceptual Plan:

6.2 g NaCl
g Na
g NaCl

mol NaCl

mol Na

g Na

Relationships:

1 mol NaCl = 58.44 g, 1 mol Na = 22.99 g,

1 mol Na : 1 mol NaCl
Solution:

Check: because the amount of Na is less than the amount of NaCl, the answer
makes sense

Checkpoint 18
1. A mixture of NaBr and Na2SO4 contains 29.96 % Na by
mass. Calculate the percent by mass of each compound in
the mixture

2. A mixture of CUSO4.5H2O and MgSO4.7H2O is heated until

all the water is lost. If 5.020g of mixture gives 2.988g of the
anhydrous salts, what is the percent by mass of
CuSO4.5H2O.

Checkpoint 19
1. Myoglobin stores oxygen for metabolic processes in
muscle. Chemical analysis shows that it contains 0.34%
Fe by mass. What is the molar mass of myoglobin?
(There is one Fe atom per molecule).
2. The aluminium sulfate hydrate [Al2(SO4)3.xH2O] contains
8.10 % Al by mass. Calculate x, that is the number of
water molecules associated with each Al2(SO4)3 unit.
3. An oxybromate compound KBrOx, where x is unknown, is
analyzed and found to contain 52.92% Br. What is the
value of x?

Chemical Formulas
Formulas Describe Compounds
A compound is a distinct substance that is composed of
atoms of two or more elements
Describe the compound by describing the number and type
of each atom in the simplest unit of the compound
molecules or ions

Each element is represented by its letter symbol

The number of atoms of each element is written to the right
of the element as a subscript
if there is only one atom, the 1 subscript is not written

Polyatomic ions are placed in parentheses

if more than one

Chemical Formulas
Representing Compounds with Chemical Formula

Compounds are generally represented with a chemical

formula
The amount of information about the structure of the
compound varies with the type of formula
all formula and models convey a limited amount of
information none are perfect representations

All chemical formulas tell what elements are in the

compound
use the letter symbol of the element

Chemical Formulas

Chemical Formulas
Types of Formula: Empirical Formula

An empirical formula gives the relative number of atoms of

each element in a compound it does not describe how many
atoms, the order of attachment, or the shape the formulas for
ionic compounds are empirical
The empirical formula for the molecular compound oxalic acid is
CHO2.
This means that there is 1 C atom and 1 H atom for every 2 O
atoms in the molecule. The actual molecular formula is C2H2O4.

Chemical Formulas
Types of Formula: Molecular Formula

A molecular formula gives the actual number of atoms of

each element in a molecule of a compound it does not
describe the order of attachment, or the shape

The molecular formula is C2H2O4. This does not

tell you that the carbon atoms are attached
together in the center of the molecule, and that
each is attached to two oxygen atoms.

Chemical Formulas
Types of Formula: Structural Formula
A structural formula uses lines to represent covalent bonds
and shows how atoms in a molecule are connected or
bonded to each other it does not directly describe the 3dimensional shape, but an experienced chemist can make a
good guess at it each line describes the number of electrons
shared by the bonded atoms
single line = two shared electrons, a single covalent bond
double line = four shared electrons, a double covalent bond
triple line six shared electrons, a triple covalent bond

Chemical Formulas
Example 19 : Structural Formula

Chemical Formulas

Chemical Formulas
Example 20: Find the empirical formula for each of the
following
The ionic compound that has two aluminum
ions for every three oxide ions

CH2O

arabinose, C5H10O5

H
H

pyrimidine
H

ethylene glycol

Al2O3

C
C

C
N

C 2H 2N
H

CH3O

Example 21 : Write the molecular formula of

isoflurane,is a common inhalation anesthetic,
from its ball-and-stick model, shown below.

F
H
O

F
C

C
C

F
Cl

C3H2OF5Cl

Chemical Formulas
Compounds that Contain Ions
Compound must have no total charge, therefore we must
balance the numbers of cations and anions in a compound to
get 0 charge
If Na+ is combined with S2, you will need two Na+ ions for
every S2 ion to balance the charges, therefore the formula
must be Na2S
The formula is usually the same as the empirical formula

Chemical Formulas
Compounds that Contain Ions

The most reactive metals (green) and the most reactive nonmetals (blue)
combine to form ionic compounds.

Chemical Formulas
Writing the Formula of an Ionic Compound

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Write the symbol for the metal cation and its charge
Write the symbol for the nonmetal anion and its charge
Charge (without sign) becomes subscript for other ion
Reduce subscripts to smallest whole number ratio
Check that the sum of the charges of the cations cancels
the sum of the anions

Chemical Formulas
Example 22 : Writing the chemical formula for a binary
ionic compound containing invariant charge metal Ions
2 x +3 = +6

3 x -2 = -6
Al2O3

Al3+

O2-

1 x +2 = +2

2 x -1 = -2
CaBr2

Ca2+

Br-

2 x +1 = +2

1 x -2 = -2
Na2CO3

Na+

CO32-

Chemical Formulas
Example 23: Writing the chemical formula for a binary
ionic compound containing variable charge metal
manganese(IV) sulfide
1.
2.
3.
4.

5.

Write the symbol for the cation and

its charge
Write the symbol for the anion and
its charge
Charge (without sign) becomes
subscript for other ion
Reduce subscripts to smallest
whole number ratio
Check that the total charge of the
cations cancels the total charge of
the anions

Mn4+
S2Mn4+ S2

Mn2S4

MnS2
Mn = (1)(4+) = +4
S = (2)(2) = 4

Chemical Formulas
Example 24: Writing the formula for ionic compounds
containing polyatomic ion
Iron(III) phosphate
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Write the symbol for the cation and

its charge
Write the symbol for the anion and
its charge
Charge (without sign) becomes
subscript for other ion
Reduce subscripts to smallest
whole number ratio
Check that the total charge of the
cations cancels the total charge of
the anions

Fe3+
PO43
Fe3+ PO43

Fe3(PO4)3

FePO4
Fe = (1)(3+) = +3
PO4 = (1)(3) = 3

Chemical Formulas
Example 25: Writing the formula for a compounds
containing polyatomic anion and polyatomic cation
Methyl ammonium phosphate
1.
2.
3.
4.

5.

Write the symbol for the cation and

CH3NH3+
its charge
Write the symbol for the anion and
PO43
its charge
Charge (without sign) becomes
(CH3NH3)3PO4
CH3NH3+PO43
subscript for other ion
Reduce subscripts to smallest
whole number ratio
(CH3NH3)3PO4
Check that the total charge of the
cations cancels the total charge of
the anions
CH NH = (+1)(3) = +3
3

PO4 = (1)(3) = 3

Chemical Formulas
Empirical Formula
Simplest, whole-number ratio of the atoms of elements in
a compound
Can be determined from elemental analysis
masses of elements formed when a compound is decompose, or
that react together to form a compound
combustion analysis
percent composition

Chemical Formulas
Finding an Empirical Formula
1. Convert the percentages to grams
a) assume you start with 100 g of the compound
b) skip if already in grams
2. Convert grams to moles
a) use molar mass of each element
3. Divide all by smallest number of moles
a) if result is within 0.1 of whole number, round to whole number
4. Multiply all mole ratios by a number to make all whole numbers
a) if ratio ?.5, multiply all by 2; if ratio ?.33 or ?.67, multiply all by 3;
if ratio 0.25 or 0.75, multiply all by 4; etc.
b) skip if already whole numbers

Example 26 : Laboratory analysis of aspirin determined

the following mass percent composition as follows:
C = 60.00%, H = 4.48% and O = 35.53%.
Calculate the empirical formula of aspirin.

Solution:
In 100 g of aspirin there are 60.00 g C, 4.48 g H, 35.53 g O
The conceptual plan is

gC

mol C

gH

mol H

gO

mol O

mole
ratio

whole
number
ratio

empirical
formula

Given the molar mass:

1 mol C = 12.01 g; 1 mol H = 1.008 g; 1 mol O = 16.00 g
calculate the moles of each element

The mole ratio of C : H : O = 4.996 : 4.44 : 2.220

Divide the mole ratio by the smallest number of mole in
the above mole ratio to get the whole number mole ratio

Whole number mole ratio:

C : H : O = 4.996 : 4.44 : 2.220 = 2.25 : 2 : 1
2.220
2.220 2.220
Choose a small number to multiply the mole ratio in order
to get the whole number mole ratio
Multiply by 4

C : H : O = 2.25 x 4 : 2 x 4 : 1 x 4
= 9: 8: 4
The empirical formula = C9H8O4
Once youve learnt how to convert one unit to another
according to the conceptual plan, you can evaluate
the empirical formula in a table format.

Element

% composition
by mass (g)

60.00

4.48

35.53

Relative atomic
mass

12.01

1.008

16.00

Number of
moles

4.996

4.44

2.220

4.996
2.220
= 2.25

4.44
2.220
=2

2.220
2.220
=1

Mole ratios

Simplest ratio
(x4)

Chemical Formulas
Molecular Formulas

The molecular formula is a multiple of the

empirical formula
To determine the molecular formula you need to
know the empirical formula and the molar mass
of the compound

Example 27 : Find the molecular formula of

butanedione
Given:
Find:

emp. form. = C2H3O;

MM = 86.03 g/mol
molecular formula

Conceptual Plan: and

Relationships:
Solution:

Check:

the molar mass of the calculated formula is in agreement with the

given molar mass

Checkpoint 20
Methyl salicylate has a mass percent composition of 63.2% C, 31.6% O
and 5.26% H. The mass of one molecule of the compound is 2.53 x 10-22
g. Determine the empirical formula and the molecular formula of methyl
salicylate.

The mass percent composition of an organic acid is given as 41.4% C,

3.47% H, 55.1% O. 0.05 mol of this acid has a mass of 5.80g. Determine
the empirical formula and the molecular formula of this acid.

An 0.648 g sample of isobutene contains 0.556g of carbon and the rest is

hydrogen. 0.5 mol of the isobutene has a mass of 28.5g. What is the
empirical formula and molecular formula of isobutene.

Chemical Formulas
Combustion Analysis
A common technique for analyzing compounds is to burn a
known mass of compound and weigh the amounts of
product made
generally used for organic compounds containing C, H, O

By knowing the mass of the product and composition of

constituent element in the product, the original amount of
constituent element can be determined
all the original C forms CO2, the original H forms H2O, the original
mass of O is found by subtraction

Once the masses of all the constituent elements in the

original compound have been determined, the empirical
formula can be found

Chemical Formulas
Combustion Analysis

CnHm + (n+

m
m
) O2 = n CO(g) +
H O(g)
2
2 2

Example 28
Combustion of a 0.8233 g sample of a compound
containing only carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
produced 2.445 g CO2 and 0.6003 g H2O. Determine
the empirical formula of the compound
Solution:
Let the empirical formula to be CxHyOz
Write a conceptual plan

g
CO2, H2O

mol
CO2, H2O

mol
C, H, O

mol
C, H

mol
ratio

g
C, H

g
O

empirical
formula

mol
O

Convert : g CO2
mol CO2
mol C
9 H2 O
mol H2O
2 mol H
Use the following relationship:
Molar mass of CO2 = 12.01 + (16.00)2 = 44.01 g/mol
Molar mass of H2O = 2(1.008) + 16.00 = 18.02 g/mol
1mol CO2 = 1 mol C;

1mol H2O = 2 mol H

Calculate the grams of C and H using molar mass of C and H

Calculate the grams and moles of O

Mass of O = Mass of compound (mass of C + mass of H)
= 0.8233 g (0.6673 g + 0.06715 g) = 0.0889 g O

Mole ratio C : H : O = 0.05556 : 0.06662 : 0.00556

Divide by the smallest mole

C : H : O = 0.05556 : 0.06662 : 0.00556
0.00556 0.00556 0.00556
= 10
:
12
: 1

The empirical formula = C10H12O

Checkpoint 21
The smell of dirty gym socks is caused by the compound
caproic acid. Combustion of 0.844 g of caproic acid produced
0.784 g of H2O and 1.92 g of CO2. If the molar mass of
caproic acid is 116.2 g/mol, what is the molecular formula of
caproic acid? (Molar mass C = 12.01, H = 1.008, O = 16.00)

Checkpoint 22
1. An organic compound was found to contain only C, H, and
Cl. When a 1.50 g sample of compound was completely
combusted in air 3.52g of CO2 was formed. In a separate
experiment the chlorine in a 1.0 g sample of the compound
was converted to 1.27 g of AgCl. Determine the empirical
formula of the compound.
2. Ferrocene, first synthesized in 1951, was the first organic
iron compound with Fe-C bonds. An understanding of the
structure of ferrocene gave rise to new ideas about
chemical bonding and led to the preparation of many
useful compounds, In combustion analysis of ferrocene,
which contains only Fe, C and H, a 0.9437 g of sample
produced 2.233 g of CO2 and 0.457 g of H2O. What is the
empirical formula of ferrocene?

Checkpoint 23
1. Lysine, an essential amino acid in the human body,
contains C,H,O and N. In one experiment, the complete
combustion of 2.175 g of lysine gave 3.94 g CO2 and 1.89
g H2O. In a separate experiment, 1.873 g of lysine gave
0.43g g of NH3.
(a) Calculate the empirical formula of lysine.

(b) The approximate molar mass of lysine is 150 g. What is

the molecular formula of the compound?

Balanced Chemical Equations

Chemical Equations
Shorthand way of describing a reaction
Provides information about the reaction
formulas of reactants and products
states of reactants and products
relative numbers of reactant and product molecules
that are required
can be used to determine weights of reactants used
and products that can be made

Balanced Chemical Equations

Chemical Equations
A chemical equation uses formulas to express the identities and
quantities of substances involved in a physical or chemical change.

The formation of HF gas on the macroscopic and molecular levels.

Balanced Chemical Equations

Chemical Equations
A three-level view of the reaction between magnesium and oxygen.

Balanced Chemical Equations

Features of Chemical Equations

A yield arrow points from

reactants to products.

Mg

O2

MgO

Reactants are written on the left.

Products are written on the right.

The equation must be balanced; the same number

and type of each atom must appear on both sides.

Balanced Chemical Equations

translate the statement

magnesium and oxygen gas react to give

magnesium oxide:
Mg + O2 MgO

balance the atoms using coefficients;

formulas cannot be changed
2Mg + O2 2MgO
adjust coefficients if necessary

check that all atoms balance

specify states of matter

2Mg (s) + O2 (g) 2MgO (s)

Balanced Chemical Equations

Combustion of Methane
To show the reaction obeys the Law of Conservation of
Mass the equation must be balanced
we adjust the numbers of molecules so there are equal numbers of
atoms of each element on both sides of the arrow

CH4(g) + 2 O2(g)
O
H
H

H
H

O
+

CO2(g) + 2 H2O(g)
O

C
O

1C + 4H + 4O

+
O
H

1C + 4H + 4O

Balanced Chemical Equations

Chemical Equations

CH4(g) + 2 O2(g)

CO2(g) + 2 H2O(g)

CH4 and O2 are the reactants, and CO2 and H2O are the
products
The (g) after the formulas tells us the state of the
chemical
The number in front of each substance tells us the
numbers of those molecules in the reaction
called the coefficients

Balanced Chemical Equations

Chemical Equations

CH4(g) + 2 O2(g)

CO2(g) + 2 H2O(g)

This equation is balanced, meaning that there are equal

numbers of atoms of each element on the reactant and
product sides
to obtain the number of atoms of an element, multiply the
subscript by the coefficient

1C1
4H4
4O2+2

Balanced Chemical Equations

Symbols Used in Equations

Symbols used to indicate state after chemical

(g) = gas; (l) = liquid; (s) = solid
(aq) = aqueous = dissolved in water

Example 29 : Write a balanced equation for the

combustion of butane, C4H10
Write a skeletal equation

C4H10(l) + O2(g) CO2(g) + H2O(g)

Balance atoms in complex

substances first

4C1x4
C4H10(l) + O2(g) 4 CO2(g) + H2O(g)
10 H 2 x 5
C4H10(l) + O2(g) 4 CO2(g) + 5 H2O(g)

Balance free elements by

adjusting coefficient in
front of free element

13/2 x 2 O 13
C4H10(l) + 13/2 O2(g) 4 CO2(g) + 5 H2O(g)

If fractional coefficients,
multiply thru by
denominator
Check

{C4H10(l) + 13/2 O2(g) 4 CO2(g) + 5 H2O(g)}x 2

2 C4H10(l) + 13 O2(g) 8 CO2(g) + 10 H2O(g)

8 C 8; 20 H 20; 26 O 26

Example 30 : when aluminum metal reacts

with air, it produces a white, powdery
compound, aluminum oxide
reacting with air means reacting with O2
aluminum(s) + oxygen(g)
aluminum oxide(s)

Al(s) + O2(g)

Al2O3(s)

4 Al(s) + 3 O2(g) 2 Al2O3(s)

Example 31 : Acetic acid reacts with the metal

aluminum to make aqueous aluminum acetate
and gaseous hydrogen
acids are always aqueous
metals are solid except for mercury
Al(s) + HC2H3O2(aq)
Al(C2H3O2)3(aq) + H2(g)

2 Al(s) + 6 HC2H3O2(aq) 2 Al(C2H3O2)3(aq) + 3 H2(g)

Stoichiometric Calculation
(Amount of Reactants and Products)
Making Pizza
The number of pizzas you can make depends on the
amount of the ingredients you use
1 crust + 5 oz. tomato sauce + 2 cu cheese 1 pizza

This relationship can be expressed mathematically

1 crust : 5 oz. sauce : 2 cu cheese : 1 pizza

If you want to make more or less than one pizza, you can use the amount of
cheese you have to determine the number of pizzas you can make
assuming you have enough crusts and tomato sauce

Stoichiometric Calculation
(Amount of Reactants and Products)
Chemical Reactions
Reactions involve chemical changes in matter resulting
in new substances
Reactants Products
Combination (2H2 + O2 2H2O) -synthesis
Decomposition (2H2 + O2 2H2O) - electrolysis
Single-displacement (CuSO4 + Zn ZnSO4 + Cu)- substitution
Double-displacement (AgNO3 + NaCl AgCl + NaNO3)substitution
Combustion (CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2H2O)
Neutralization (HCl + NaOH NaCl + H2O)- Acid-base

Reactions involve rearrangement and exchange of

atoms to produce new molecules
elements are not transmuted during a reaction

Stoichiometric Calculation
(Amount of Reactants and Products)
Units
Always write every number with its associated unit
Always include units in your calculations
you can do the same kind of operations on units
as you can on numbers
cm cm = cm2
cm + cm = cm
cm cm = 1
using units as a guide to problem solving is called
dimensional analysis

Stoichiometric Calculation
(Amount of Reactants and Products)
Quantities in Chemical Reactions
The amount of every substance used and made in a
chemical reaction is related to the amounts of all the other
substances in the reaction
Law of Conservation of Mass
Balancing equations by balancing atoms
The study of the numerical relationship between chemical
quantities in a chemical reaction is called stoichiometry

Stoichiometric Calculation
(Amount of Reactants and Products)
Reaction Stoichiometry
The coefficients in a balanced chemical equation specify
the relative amounts in moles of each of the substances
involved in the reaction
2 C8H18(l) + 25 O2(g) 16 CO2(g) + 18 H2O(g)
2 molecules of C8H18 react with 25 molecules of O2
to form 16 molecules of CO2 and 18 molecules of H2O
2 moles of C8H18 react with 25 moles of O2
to form 16 moles of CO2 and 18 moles of H2O
2 mol C8H18 : 25 mol O2 : 16 mol CO2 : 18 mol H2O

Stoichiometric Calculation
(Amount of Reactants and Products)
Predicting Amounts from Stoichiometry
The amounts of any other substance in a chemical reaction can be
determined from the amount of just one substance. A chemically
balanced equation in the calculation

Example 32
a) How many moles of CO2 can be produced in the
combustion of 22.0 moles of C8H18 ?
The equation of reaction is
2 C8H18(l) + 25 O2(g) 16 CO2(g) + 18 H2O(g)
The mole: mole relationship from the balanced equation
2 moles C8H18 : 16 moles CO2

Example 33 : Estimate the mass of CO2 produced

by the combustion of 3.5 x 1015 g gasoline, C8H18.
Given:
Find:
Conceptual Plan:

3.4 x 1015 g C8H18

g CO2
g C8H18

mol C8H18

mol CO2

g CO2

Relationships:
1 mol C8H18 = 114.22g, 1 mol CO2 = 44.01g, 2 mol C8H18:16 mol CO2

Solution:

Check:

because 8x moles of CO2 as C8H18, but the molar mass of

C8H18 is 3x CO2, the number makes sense

Checkpoint 24
How many moles of carbon dioxide gas can be produced when
35.1g of propane is burned completely in a rich supply of
oxygen?
C3H8 + 5O2 3CO2 + 4H2O

Checkpoint 25
The reaction between C7H6O3 and C4H6O3 is given by

2 C7H6O3 + C4H6O3 2 C9H8O4 + H2O

a)

b)

How many grams of C4H6O3 are required to react

completely with 125g of salicylate acid, C7H6O3.
Calculate the mass in grams of aspirin, C9H8O4 formed in
the above reaction, that is, reaction (a).

Checkpoint 26
What volume of hydrogen is formed when 3.00 g of
magnesium react with an excess of dilute sulfuric acid is
carried out under room temperature and pressure at 1 atm.

Checkpoint 27
In the preparation of hydrogen chloride by the reaction
NaCl (s) + H2SO4 (l) HCl (g) + NaHSO4 (s)
a)

How many grams of sodium chloride and sulfuric acid are

required for the production of 10.0 dm3 of hydrogen
chloride at s.t.p?

Limiting Reactants, Theoretical and Actual

Yield
Limiting Reactants
So far we have assumed that reactants are present in the
correct amounts to react completely.
In reality, one reactant may limit the amount of product
that can form.
The limiting reactant will be completely used up in the
reaction.
The reactant that is not limiting is in excess some of
this reactant will be left over.

An ice cream sundae analogy for limiting reactions.

Example 34
How many moles of Si3N4 can be made from 1.20 moles
of Si and 1.00 moles of N2 in the reaction 3 Si + 2 N2
Si3N4?
Given:
Find:
Conceptual Plan:

1.20 mol Si, 1.00 mol N2

mol Si3N4
mol Si

mol Si3N4

mol N2

mol Si3N4

Pick least
amount

Relationships:

Limiting
reactant and
theoretical
yield

2 mol N2 : 1 Si3N4; 3 mol Si : 1 Si3N4

Solution:
Limiting
reactant
Theoretical yield

Checkpoint 28
Consider the reaction between iron (III) oxide, Fe2O3 and
carbon monoxide, CO.
Fe2O3 + 3CO

2Fe +
3CO2
In one process, 213 g of Fe2O3 are reacted with 140 g of CO.
(a) calculate the mass (in grams) of Fe formed. (b) How
many moles of the excess reagent is left at the end of the
reaction?

Checkpoint 29
In one experiment x grams of CS2 is mixed with y grams of
NaOH. The reaction is represented by the unbalanced
equation below.
CS2 + NaOH Na2CS3 + Na2CO3 + H2O
At the end of the reaction, 7.5 g of Na2CO3 is formed while
3.3 g of CS2 is left unreacted in the reaction vessel. All the
NaOH in the vessel is completely consumed.
a)
Balance the above equation
b)
Calculate the amount of CS2 (x grams) and
NaOH (y grams) added to the reaction vessel at the beginning
of the reaction.

Limiting Reactants, Theoretical and Actual

Yield
Theoretical and Actual Yield
As we did with the pizzas, in order to determine the
theoretical yield, we should use reaction stoichiometry to
determine the amount of product each of our reactants
could make
The theoretical yield will always be the least possible
amount of product
the theoretical yield will always come from the limiting
reactant
Because of both controllable and uncontrollable factors,
the actual yield of product will always be less than the
theoretical yield

Limiting Reactants, Theoretical and Actual

Yield
Theoretical and Actual Yield

Lets now assume that as we are making pizzas, we burn a

pizza, drop one on the floor, or other uncontrollable events
happen so that we only make two pizzas. The actual
amount of product made in a chemical reaction is called
the actual yield.
We can determine the efficiency of making pizzas by
calculating the percentage of the maximum number of
pizzas we actually make. In chemical reactions, we call
this the percent yield.

Example 35 :

When 28.6 kg of C are allowed to react with 88.2 kg of

TiO2 in the reaction below, 42.8 kg of Ti are obtained.
Find the limiting reactant, theoretical yield, and percent
yield.

TiO2 (s) 2 C(s) Ti(s) 2 CO(g)

kg
C

kg
TiO2

smallest
mol Ti

smallest
amount is
from
limiting
reactant

Relationship required :
1000 g = 1 kg
Molar Mass TiO2 = 79.87 g/mol
Molar Mass Ti = 47.87 g/mol
Molar Mass C = 12.01 g/mol
1 mole TiO2 : 1 mol Ti (from the chem. equation)
2 mole C : 1 mol Ti (from the chem. equation)

limiting reactant
smallest moles of Ti

theoretical yield

limiting reactant = TiO2, theoretical yield = 52.9 kg

percent yield = 80.9%
Because Ti has lower molar mass than TiO2, the T.Y. makes sense and
the percent yield makes sense as it is less than 100%

Checkpoint 30
How many grams of N2(g) can be made from 9.05 g of NH3
reacting with 45.2 g of CuO?
2 NH3(g) + 3 CuO(s) N2(g) + 3 Cu(s) + 3 H2O(l)
If 4.61 g of N2 are made, what is the percent yield?

1.4 Concentrations of Solutions

1.4.1
1.4.2
1.4.3
1.4.4
1.4.5
1.4.6
1.4.7
1.4.8
1.4.9

Solution
Molarity
Dissociation
Dilution
Stoichiometry Road Map
Stoichiometric Solutions
Concentration Expressions
Molality and Mole Fraction
Part Solute in Part Solution

Solutions
Homogeneous mixtures
composition may vary from one sample to another
appears to be one substance, though really contains
multiple materials

Most homogeneous materials we encounter are

actually solutions
e.g., air and seawater

Nature has a tendency toward spontaneous

mixing
generally, uniform mixing is more energetically
favorable

Solutions
When table salt is mixed with water, it seems to
disappear, or become a liquid the mixture is
homogeneous
the salt is still there, as you can tell from the taste, or
simply boiling away the water
Homogeneous mixtures are called solutions
The component of the solution that changes state is
called the solute
The component that keeps its state is called the solvent
if both components start in the same state, the major
component is the solvent

Solutions
Solutions have variable composition
To describe a solution, you need to describe the
components and their relative amounts
The terms dilute and concentrated can be used as
qualitative descriptions of the amount of solute in
solution
Concentration = amount of solute in a given amount of
solution
occasionally amount of solvent

Concentration
Qualitatively, solutions are often described as dilute or
concentrated
Dilute solutions have a small amount of solute compared
to solvent
Concentrated solutions have a large amount of solute
compared to solvent

Molarity
Moles of solute per 1 liter of solution
Used because it describes how many molecules of solute
in each liter of solution

Molarity
Example 35: Preparing 0.5 L of a 0.350 M nickel(II) nitrate
hexahydrate Solution
1

Calculate the mass of solid

Mass (g) = 0.500 L x 0.350 mol/L x 290.82 g

= 50.9 g Ni(NO3)3.6H2O
Weigh the solid needed.
2 Transfer the solid to a volumetric flask that
contains about half the final volume of solvent.

3 Dissolve the solid thoroughly by swirling.

4 Add solvent until the solution reaches its final

volume.

Example 36 : How would you prepare 250.0 mL of

a 1.00 M solution CuSO45 H2O(MM 249.69)?
Given:
Find:
Conceptual Plan:

250.0 mL solution
mass CuSO4 5 H2O, g
mL soln

L soln

mol CuSO4

g CuSO4

Relationships:

1.00 L soln = 1.00 mol; 1 mL = 0.001 L; 1 mol = 249.69 g

Solution:

Dissolve 62.4 g of CuSO45H2O in enough water to total 250.0 mL

Check:

the unit is correct, the magnitude seems

reasonable as the volume is of a liter

Example 37: Find the molarity of a solution that

has 25.5 g KBr dissolved in 1.75 L of solution
Given:
Find:

25.5 g KBr, 1.75 L solution

molarity, M

Conceptual Plan:
g KBr

Relationships:

mol KBr

L soln

1 mol KBr = 119.00 g, M = moles/L

Solution:

Check:

because most solutions are between 0 and 18 M, the

answer makes sense

Example 38: How many liters of 0.125 M NaOH

contain 0.255 mol NaOH?
Given: 0.125 M NaOH, 0.255 mol NaOH
Find: liters, L

Conceptual Plan:
mol NaOH

L soln

Relationships:
0.125 mol NaOH = 1 L solution
Solution:

Check:

because each L has only 0.125 mol NaOH, it makes

sense that 0.255 mol should require a little more than 2 L

Example 39 : Determine the mass of CaCl2

(MM = 110.98) in 1.75 L of 1.50 M solution
Given: 1.50 M CaCl2, 1.75 L
Find: mass CaCl , g
2
Conceptual Plan:

L soln

mol CaCl2

g CaCl2

Relationships:
1.50 mol CaCl2 = 1 L solution; 110.98 g CaCl2 = 1 mol
Solution:

Check:

because each L has 1.50 mol CaCl2, it makes sense

that 1.75 L should have almost 3 moles

Dissociation
The molarity of the ionic compound allows you to
determine the molarity of the dissolved ions
CaCl2(aq) = Ca2+(aq) + 2 Cl(aq)
A 1.0 M CaCl2(aq) solution contains 1.0 moles of CaCl2 in
each liter of solution
1 L = 1.0 moles CaCl2, 2 L = 2.0 moles CaCl2
Because each CaCl2 dissociates to give one Ca2+, a 1.0 M
CaCl2 solution is 1.0 M Ca2+
1 L = 1.0 moles Ca2+, 2 L = 2.0 moles Ca2+
Because each CaCl2 dissociates to give 2 Cl, a 1.0 M
CaCl2 solution is 2.0 M Cl
1 L = 2.0 moles Cl, 2 L = 4.0 moles Cl

Dilution
Often, solutions are stored as concentrated stock
solutions
To make solutions of lower concentrations from these
stock solutions, more solvent is added
the amount of solute doesnt change, just the volume of
solution
moles solute in solution 1 = moles solute in solution 2
The concentrations and volumes of the stock and new
solutions are inversely proportional
MconcVconc = MdilVdil

Example 40 : To what volume should you dilute

0.200 L of 15.0 M NaOH to make 3.00 M NaOH?
Given:
Find:

V1 = 0.200L, M1 = 15.0 M, M2 = 3.00 M

V2, L

Conceptual Plan:
V1, M1, M2

Relationships:

V2

M1V1 = M2V2

Solution:

Check:

because the solution is diluted by a factor of 5, the volume

should increase by a factor of 5, and it does

Example 41 : What is the concentration of a solution

prepared by diluting 45.0 mL of 8.25 M HNO3 to 135.0 mL?
Given:
Find:

V1 = 45.0 mL, M1 = 8.25 M, V2 = 135.0 mL

M2 , L

Conceptual Plan:
V1, M1, V2

Relationships:

M2

M1V1 = M2V2

Solution:

Check:

because the solution is diluted by a factor of 3, the

molarity should decrease by a factor of 3, and it does

Checkpoint 31
How would you prepare 200.0 mL of 0.25 M NaCl solution
from a 2.0 M solution?

Checkpoint 32
200.0 mL of 0.25 M NaCl solution , 100.0 mL of 0.20 M NaCl
solution and 300.0 mL of distilled water are mixed in 1000 mL
beaker. What is the final molarity of NaCl solution?

Checkpoint 33
A 200.0 cm3 sample of oxalic acid solution contains 8.584
g of H2C2O4 . 25.0 cm3 of this acid solution is withdrawn
and diluted to 500.0 cm3 by adding water in a 500ml
volumetric flask. What is the molarity of the final solution?

Stoichiometry Road Map

Stoichiometric Solution
Because molarity relates the moles of solute to the liters of
solution, it can be used to convert between amount of
reactants and/or products in a chemical reaction

Example 42
3 Cu + 8 HNO3 3 Cu(NO3)2 + 2 NO + 4 H2O

In an experiment x grams of Cu reacted completely with 40 cm3 of 0.5

M HNO3 solution.
a) Calculate the value of x.
b) How many moles of NO will be formed in the above
reaction ?

Stoichiometric Solution
Solution: Conceptual Plan

Vol, Molarity
HNO3

Mol HNO3
Mol = M x V

Mol Cu
Mol Cu = 3
Mol HNO3 8

g Cu = mol Cu x MM Cu

Relationships: MM Cu = 63.55 g/mol

(a) g Cu = (0.5 mol/L x 0.04 L)HNO3 x 3 mol Cu x 63.55 g
8 mol HNO3 1 mol
= 0.48 g

(b)

Mol HNO3

Mol NO
Mol NO = 2 = 1
Mol HNO3 8 4

Mol NO formed = (0.5 x 0.04)mol HNO3 x 1 mol NO

4 mol HNO3
= 0.005 mol

g Cu

Checkpoint 34
11.9 g of NH3 is produced when x grams of (NH4)2SO4
reacted completely in v cm3 of 2.5 M NaOH according to the
equation below :
(NH4)2SO4 + 2NaOH Na2SO4 + 2H2O + 2NH3
Calculate the values of x and v.

Stoichiometric Solutions
Gas-Formation Reactions
When there are no gaseous reactants, the formation of an
insoluble or slightly soluble gas provides a driving forces for a
type of reaction that we call a gas-formation reaction.
Example 43: When excess of sulfuric acid reacts with x g
of zinc, 500 mL of hydrogen gas is evolved at stp.
Calculate the value of x

Stoichiometric Solutions
Gas-Formation Reactions
Solution :
Zn (s) + H2SO4 (aq) ZnSO4 (aq) + H2 (g)
Mol of H2 = 500 mL 0.5 dm3 x 1 mol = 0.022 mol
22.4 dm3
Mol of Zn = 0.022 mol x 65.39 g/mol = 1.44 g

Stoichiometric Solutions
Gravimetric Analysis

is an analytical technique based on the measurement of

mass.
dissolve unknown substance in water and react it with
known substance to form participate ( techniques is applied to
ionic compounds
formation
isolation and drying
mass determination of a precipitate

Example 44
A 0.5662-g sample of an ionic compound containing chloride
ions and an unknown metal is dissolved in water and treated
with an excess of AgNO3. If 1.0882 g of AgCl precipitate
forms, what is the percent by mass of Cl in the original
compound?
AgNO3 (aq) + NaCl (aq) AgCl (s) + NaNO3 (aq)

Checkpoint 35
If 30 mL of 0.150 M K3PO4 (aq) is added to 25.0 mL of
0.100 M of Ca(NO3)2, what is percent yield if only 2.450 g
of Ca3(PO4)2 (s) precipitate is formed.

Checkpoint 36
What volume of 0.150 M KCl is required to completely react
with 0.150 L of 0.175 M Pb(NO3)2 in the reaction
2 KCl(aq) + Pb(NO3)2(aq) PbCl2(s) + 2 KNO3(aq)?

Checkpoint 37
If 1 dm3 sample of air containing carbon dioxide is passed
through aqueous calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2, 0.45 g of white
precipitated (CaCO3) is formed.
Ca(OH)2 + CO2 CaCO3 + H2O

Determine the volume of CO2 in the sample at stp.

Stoichiometric Solutions
Acid-Base Titration

Example 45 : How many milimeters (mL) of a

0.610 M NaOH solution are needed to neutralize
20.0 mL of 0.245 M H2SO4 solution?
2 NaOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq) Na2SO4(aq) + 2 H2O(l)?

Let Molarity of H2SO4 = Ma, Molarity of NaOH = Mb

Volume of H2SO4 = Va, Volume of NaOH = Vb
Stoichiometry coeffient a, b = 2,1 for H2SO4, NaOH, resp.
Use the relatioship
MaVa = a
MbVb
b
0.245 M x 20.0 mL
0.610 M x Vb

= 1
2

Vb = 2 x 0.245 M x 20 mL = 16.1 mL
0.610 M

Stoichiometric Solutions
Redox Titration
Redox reactions involve the transfer of
electrons,
Titration between reducing agent
against oxidizing agent
The equivalence point is reached when
reducing agent is completely oxidized by
the oxidizing agent.
Two common oxidizing agents
MnO4-
Mn2+
Purple

light pink

Cr2O72-

Cr3+

Orange yellow

green

Example 46
A 16.42-mL volume of 0.1327 M KMnO4 solution is
needed to oxidize 25.00 mL of a FeSO4 solution in an
acidic medium. What is the concentration of the FeSO4
solution in molarity? The net ionic equation is
5Fe2+ + MnO4- + 8H+ Mn2+ + 5Fe3+ + 4H2O

Solution

Example 47
Iodate (V) ions react with acidified iodide ions as shown
below:
IO-3 + 5I- + 6H+ 3I2 + 3H2O
The iodine released is then reacted with thiosulfate ions as
given below:
I2 + 2S2O32- 2I- + S4O6260 mL of 0.2 M iodate (V) ions reacted with excess acidified
iodide ions. If all the iodine liberated reacted with x mL of 0.4
M of thiosulfate ions, calculate the value of x

Moles of iodate (V) ions

IO3- = 0.2 x 60
1000

= 0.012 mol

Moles of iodine liberated is

1 mol IO3-

3 mol I2

If 0.012 mol IO3- 0.012 mol IO3- x 3 mol I2

1 mol IO3-

= 0.036 mol

1 mol I2 reacted with 2 mol S2O32Then, 0.036 mol I2 will react with 0.036 mol I2 X 2 mol S2O32- = 0.072 mol
1 mol I2

Molarity of S2O32- (x) is 0.072 mol x 1000 = 18 mL

0.4 mol/L

Checkpoint 38
43.8 mL of 0.107 M HCl is to neutralize 37.6 mL of Ba(OH)2
solution. What is the molarity of the base?

2 HCl(aq) + Ba(OH)2(aq) BaCl2(aq) + 2 H2O(aq)

Checkpoint 39
Calculate the molarity of phosphoric acid, H3PO4 , if 40.0 cm3
of it requires 25.0 cm3 of 0.545 M potassium hydroxide, KOH
for its neutralization. Balance the equation below for the
neutralization reaction described above.
H3PO4 + KOH K3PO4 + H2O

Checkpoint 40
A 0.5166 g of sample limonite (ore of iron) is dissolved in
acid and converted all ferric to ferrous ions.
Fe3+ Fe2+
Then this solution is treated against with dichromate solution
requires 42.96 mL of 0.0213 M Cr2O72- to oxidized all Fe2+ to
Fe3+ .
6Fe2+ + Cr2O72- + 14H+ 6Fe3+ + 2Cr3+ + 7H2O
Calculate the percent of iron in limonite.

Checkpoint 41
Aluminium reacts with sulphuric acid to produce hydrogen
gas and aluminium sulphate.

2Al

3H2SO4

Al2(SO4)3

3H2

If a reaction vessel contains 2.4 g of Al and 200 cm3 of 0.5M

H2SO4 ,
a) which compound is the limiting reactant?
b) How many moles of H2 can be produced?
c) How much of the excess reagent is left at the end of the
reaction?

Checkpoint 42
In one experiment x grams of CS2 is mixed with y grams of
NaOH. The reaction is represented by the unbalanced
equation below.
CS2 + NaOH

Na2CS3 + Na2CO3 + H2O

At the end of the reaction, 7.5 g of Na2CO3 is formed while

3.3 g of CS2 is left unreacted in the reaction vessel. All the
NaOH in the vessel is completely consumed.
a) Balance the above equation
b) Calculate the amount of CS2 (x grams) and NaOH (y
grams) added to the reaction vessel at the beginning of the
reaction.

Concentrations Expressions
Expressing concentration in terms of:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Percent by Mass (w/w %)

Percent by Volume (v/v %)
Percent mass per volume (w/v %)
Molality (mol/kg)
Mole Fraction (Xa)

211

Concentrations Expressions
Using Concentrations as
Conversion Factors
Concentrations show the relationship between the amount
of solute and the amount of solvent
12%(m/m) sugar(aq) means 12 g sugar 100 g solution
or 12 kg sugar 100 kg solution; or 12 lbs. 100 lbs. solution

5.5%(m/v) Ag in Hg means 5.5 g Ag 100 mL solution

22%(v/v) alcohol(aq) means 22 mL EtOH 100 mL solution

The concentration can then be used to convert the amount

of solute into the amount of solution, or vice- versa

Concentrations Expressions
Percent Concentration

Concentrations Expressions
Mass Percent (% w/w )
Concentrations show the relationship between the amount
of solute and the amount of solvent
12%(w/w) sugar solution: 12 g sugar per 100 g solution
or 12 kg sugar 1n 100 kg solution
22%(v/v) ethanol solution: 22 mL EtOH per 100 mL
solution

Example 48 : What volume of 10.5% by mass soda

contains 78.5 g of sugar?
Density of the solution 1.04 g/mL

Given: 78.5 g sugar

Find: volume, mL
Conceptual
Plan:

g solute

g soln

mL soln

Relationships: 100 g soln = 10.5 g sugar, 1 mL soln = 1.04 g

Solve:

Check: the unit is correct, the magnitude seems reasonable as the

mass of sugar 10% the volume of solution

Molality and Mole Fraction

Molality
Moles of solute per 1 kilogram of solvent
defined in terms of amount of solvent, not solution
like the others
Does not vary with temperature
because based on masses, not volumes

Molality and Mole Fraction

Mole Fraction, XA

The mole fraction is the fraction of the moles of one

component in the total moles of all the components of the
solution
Total of all the mole fractions in a solution = 1
Unitless
The mole percentage is the percentage of the moles of
one component in the total moles of all the components
of the solution
= mole fraction x 100%

Example 49
Calculate the molarity and molality of a solution
prepared by mixing 17.2 g of C2H6O2 with 0.500
kg of H2O to make 515 mL of solution? What is
the mol fraction of C2H6O2 in the solution?
Solution: Conceptual Plan:
g C2H6O2

mol C2H6O2

mL soln

L soln

M = mol/L, 1 mol C2H6O2 = 62.07 g, 1 mL = 0.001 L

0.2771
Molality
0.554 m or 0.554 mol kg 1
0.5
0.5 x 1000
Mol H 2 O
mol 27.753 mol
18.016
Total mol = 0.2771 + 27.753 mol = 28.03 mol

C2 H 6O 2

0.2771

9.89 x 10 3
28.03

Checkpoint 43
A solution is made by dissolving 34.0 g of NH3 in 2.00 x 103
mL of water. Calculate the
a) molality of the solution
b) the mole fraction of NH3 in the solution
(MMNH3 = 17.04 g/mol, dH2O = 1.00 g/mL)

Checkpoint 44
(i) An aqueous solution consists of 6.55% by mass of glucose
(C6H12O6).
(ii) 6.2 M H2SO4(aq)
Calculate
a)
Molarity and molality of solution (i)
b)
Molality of solution (ii)
c)
What is the mole fraction of the solute in both the
solutions.
(MMH2SO4 = 98.08 g/mol, dsoln = 1.80 g/mL)

Checkpoint 45
1. Calculate the mass of solute and mass of solvent (water)
from each prepared solution

a). 125 g of 1.0% of NaNO3

b). 300 g of 0.115m of C2H6O2
c). 125 mL of 0.1M of NaNO3
2. Calculate the amount of water (in grams) that must be
added to 5.00g urea (NH2)2CO in preparation of a 16.2% by
mass solution
3. The density of a 2.45 M aqueous solution of methanol
(CH3OH) is 0.976 g/mL. What is the molality of the solution?
(MW= 32.04g)

Parts Solute in Parts Solution

Parts can be measured by mass or volume
Parts are generally measured in same units
by mass in grams, kilogram, lbs, etc.
by volume in mL, L, gallons, etc.
mass and volume combined in grams and mL

Percentage = parts of solute in every 100 parts solution

if a solution is 0.9% by mass, then there are 0.9 grams of solute in
every 100 grams of solution
or 0.9 kg solute in every 100 kg solution

Parts per million = parts of solute in every 1 million parts

solution
if a solution is 36 ppm by volume, then there are 36 mL of solute in
1 million mL of solution
1mg/L (1 mg of arsenic in 1L in drinking water or 1mg/Kg (1 mg of
Ca in 1 Kg of soil)

Questions?

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