Heat Transfer Coefficient -1

What we have learnt so far ?

1. Modes of heat transfer

2. Thermal conductivity & thermal diffusivity

3. The heat balance procedure
4. Simple examples
5. Temperature distribution with heat flux
6. Steady state vs. transient
7. Shape and size of objects
8. Similarity between heat and momentum transfer.
9. Heat transfer coefficient (HTC) as a lumped parameter known to
us in advance
Now let us consider HTC a bit further.

Heat Transfer Coefficient -2

Definition of heat transfer coefficient
bulk fluid, Tb

General definition of HTC

stagnant film

hot solid surface, Tw

qs hA Tw Tb
hot object

Heat Transfer Coefficient -3

The heat transfer coefficient, unlike thermal conductivity, does vary
with situation
Two situations where HTC is defined
1. Flow in conduit
2. Flow around submerged objects

Heat Transfer Coefficient

1. Local heat transfer coefficient: vary along the
direction of flow
2. Overall heat transfer coefficient: a
combination of HTCs of processes in series

Heat Transfer Coefficient -4

Tb,2

Tb,1

FLOW IN CONDUITS
Tw,1

Tw,2

There are three definitions:

qs h1 DL Tw,1 Tb ,1 h2 DL Tw,2 Tb,2

Tw,1 Tb,1 Tw,2 Tb,2

qs h1 DL

qs hln

T T T

DL
ln T T T

w,1

w,1

b ,1

b ,1

Tb ,2

w,2 Tb ,2

w,2

Definition is based on
information at one point. In
general, h1 is different from h2
Definition is based on the
average of the driving force

Definition is based on the

log mean driving force

Heat Transfer Coefficient -5

If the temperature of the fluid changes appreciably, the
local heat transfer coefficient is preferable:
d qs h local D dz Tw,l Tb ,l
The heat transfer coefficient obtained in
the analysis of flow in a tube is local, i.e.

h h z
WARNING ABOUT THE USE OF HTC
To use the heat transfer coefficient,
make sure that you know exactly:
1. The definition of temperature driving force
2. The definition of heat transfer area

Heat Transfer Coefficient -6

Heat transfer coefficient is a function of:
1. the fluid properties (k, Cp, , )
2. the systems geometry
3. the flow velocity
4. the driving force
5. the surface temperature variation
h = h (k, Cp, , , v, Tw, Tb, D, L)
For a tube of radius R and length L,
the total heat flow into the fluid is:

T r , , z
qs k

dr
o o
L 2

Rd dz

Using the definition of HTC

qs h1 DL Tw,1 Tb,1

rR

Equate and solve to get, h

Functional Form of Heat Transfer

Coefficient

Local heat flux is:

q h(Ts T )
Where
h is the local heat transfer coefficient

The Energy Equation

Energy equation for 3D flow of a fluid with constant properties and
negligible external work done (by shear stresses, pressure force, gravity,
nuclear reactions, chemical reactions, electromagnetic forces etc)
2T 2T 2T
T
T
T
T
C p
C p u
v
w k
2 2
2
t

x
y
z

Energy equation for 2D steady flow of a fluid with constant properties

and negligible external work done (by shear stresses, pressure force,
gravity, nuclear reactions, chemical reactions, electromagnetic forces etc)
2T 2T
T
T
C p u
v k
2
2

x
y

Functional Form of Heat Transfer

Coefficient,
contd..
Develop convection
transfer equations
Consider steady, 2-D flow of a viscous, incompressible fluid with constant properties

Key point to remember:

At each point in the fluid, the three conservation laws must hold

Functional Form of Heat Transfer

Coefficient,
contd..
Boundary Layer
Approximations
u
u u
v u
v

,
,

Velocity boundary layer u v ; and

y
x y
x y
y
T
T

y
x

Thermal boundary layer

Quick overview of fluid equations

u v
u
v

0
0
x
y
x
y

Conservation of mass (continuity):

x-momentum equation:

u v
0
x y

u
u
0Q

x
y

2u 2u
u
u
p
u v

2 "Body forces"
2
y
x
y
x
x

Functional Form of Heat Transfer

Coefficient, 0contd..
0
0
0

2 v 2 v
v
v
p
u v

2 "Body forces"
2

x
y

y-momentum eq:

So:

p
y

Energy equation:
0

Why?

T 2T
T
T
cp u
v k
2
2
y
y
x
x

T
T
2T
u
v
2
x
y
y

T
T

y
x

Functional Form of Heat Transfer

p
p dp
Coefficient,
contd..

0
then
p

f
(
x
)
only,
and

Unknowns are: u, v, p, and T

Since:
y

p(x) can be obtained from free stream flow.

Non-dimensionalize the equations by setting:

x
y
and y
L
L
where L is characteri stic length of the surface

u
v
and v
V
V
where V is the freestream velocity ( U )

u
and

T - Ts
T
T Ts
*

and P * p / V 2

dx

Functional Form of Heat Transfer

contd..
BoundaryCoefficient,
layer equations can be rewritten
in terms of the non-dimensional variables
Continuity
x-momentum

energy

*
*
*
2 *

u
u * * v* * *
VL y * 2
x
y
x
*
T *
2T *
* T
u
v

*
*
VL y * 2
x
y
*

Wall:
With boundary
conditions

u * v *
* 0
*
x
y

u * ( x* , y* 0) 0 ; v* ( x* , y* 0) 0 ;
T * ( x* , y * 0) 0
U
V
T * ( x * , y * ) 1

Freestream: u * ( x* , y* )

[ 1 if V U ]

Functional Form of Heat Transfer

Coefficient,
contd..
See the dimensionless
boundary layer
equations, dimensionless groups can be seen
Reynolds #

Re L

VL

Prandtl #

Substitution gives the boundary layer equations:

u * v *
* 0
*
x
y

Continuity

x-momentum

energy

*
*
*
2 *

P
1

u
u * * v* * *
Re L y * 2
x
y
x
*
T *
1
2T *
* T
u
v

*
*
Re L Pr y * 2
x
y
*

Pr

Functional Form of Heat Transfer

Coefficient,
contd..
Solutions to the boundary
layer equations are of the form:

u f
*

dP*
dP*
x , y , Re L , * where : * 0 for flat plate
dx
dx
dP*
* *
x , y , Re L , Pr, *
dx
*

T f
*

Rewrite the convective heat transfer coefficient

q&x
hx

Ts T

k f

T
y

y 0

Ts T

Ts T

k f T
hx

L y *

Define the Nusselt number as:

k f

Nu

T Ts

T
s

y

L

T T
s
L
y 0

y* 0

T *
y *

y* 0

dP*

f x * , Re L , Pr, *

dx

Functional Form of Heat Transfer

*
Coefficient,
contd..
dP
(For a prescribed geometry,
is known)
dx*

Nusselt number for a prescribed geometry

Nu

hL
f x * , Re L , Pr
kf

Local

Nu

hL
f Re L , Pr
kf

Average

Many convection problems are solved using Nusselt number correlations

incorporating Reynolds and Prandtl numbers
The Nusselt number is to the thermal boundary layer what the friction
coefficient is to the velocity boundary layer.

s
2 u *
Cf

2
V
Re L y *

y 0

dP
*
f x , Re L , *
dx

Functional Form of h using Heat & Momentum

transfer analogy
Begin to see where the momentum and heat transfer analogy is going ..

*
T *
1
2T *
* T
u
v

*
*
Re L Pr y * 2
x
y

*
u *
P *
1 2u *
* u
u
v
*
*
*
Re L y * 2
x
y
x

If

dp * / dx 0

and Pr 1 , we obtain:
*
u *
1 2u *
* u
u
v

*
*
x
y
Re L y * 2

*
T *
1 2T *
* T
u
v

*
*
x
y
Re L y *2

These two equations are of precisely the same form.

We know that if

dp * / dx 0 , u V

Wall :
The boundary conditions for these two
equations are:

u * ( x * , y * 0) 0 ;
T * ( x* , y * 0) 0

U ( x* )
Freestream : u ( x , y )
1;
V
T * ( x* , y * ) 1
*

Functional Form of h using Heat & Momentum

transfer analogy
The boundary conditions are equivalent.
Therefore, the boundary layer velocity and temperature profiles must be of the same
functional form.

f x , y , Re , Pr

u * f x* , y * , Re L
T*

As we know,

T *
Nu
y *
s

Cf

We conclude that

Cf

V2

f x* , Re L , Pr
y* 0

2 u *

Re L y *

Re L
Nu
2

y 0

f x* , Re L
Re L

Functional Form of h using Heat & Momentum

transfer analogy
St

Define the Stanton number St,

The analogy takes the form

Cf
2

h
Nu

Vc p Re Pr

Reynolds analogy

St

The restrictions: the validity of the boundary layer approximations,

dp * / dx 0 and Pr 1
The modified Reynolds, or Chilton-Colburn, analogy has the form

cf
2

S t Pr 2/3 j

(0.6 Pr 60)

Colburn j factor
For laminar flow, its only appropriate when

dp * / dx 0

Heat Transfer Coefficient -8

FUNCTIONAL FORM OF HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT
Nu = Nu (Re, Pr, Gr, L/D )

Nu C Re

Valid for constant physical properties

Pr

(Gr)

L D

Gr g Tw T x 3 2

For forced convection and large temperature difference,

the following functional dependence is expected to
allow for temperature variation of the viscosity:
Nu = Nu (Re, Pr, L/D, b/w )

Nu C Re

Pr

L D

b w

Heat Removal and Pumping Power

W P Ac V
Pumping Power

L V 2
P f
D 2

0.186
0.186
f 0.2
0.2
Re
VD

Hence finally the pumping power can be written as

Ac L
2.8
0.8 0.2
W C
V

D
Geometry of the system

Fluid properties
Operational Parameter

Heat Removal and Pumping Power

Amount of heat to be removed by the fluid

& p t f Ac V c p t f
q mc

4 Ac
q hAtm hPLtm h
L tm
De

Work done to remove a unit amount of heat then can be represented as

L
W
C 1.2
q
De

V 1.8
0.2

0.2

c
f

1 V 2.8

W
C 0.2

q
D
h

t
e
m

W/q water
1
W/q Organic coolants
4 to 10
W/q liquid metals
3 to 7
W/q gases
100

0.8

0.2

THE NUSSELT NUMBER -1

The Nusselt number is physically described as
Heat transfer coeff at
the solid fluid interface

hx
Nu
k

Characteristic dimension
Length for external flow
Dia for internal flow
Can be any other dimension

Thermal conductivity of fluid

at the solid fluid interface

Let x = thickness of film then can we write Nu as;

kA
hx
Nu

k
1
hA

Conductive resistance of solid fluid interface

Convective resistance of solid fluid interface

THE NUSSELT NUMBER -2

Let us write the BC of third kind in mathematical form
At the bounding surface, the heat flux entering the domain equals the heat flux
across the thin film surrounding the object. BC of the third kind (Robin BC)

qsolid
qliquid

dT
k fluid
dx 1

h Tw Tb
Temperature gradient at the wall

dT
1

dx
hx

k fluid
1
h Tw Tb Tw Tb
x
x

dT
k fluid

dx

Reference Temperature gradient

THE PRANDTL NUMBER -1

The Prandtl number is physically described as
Heat capacity of fluid

Pr

cp

Viscosity of the fluid

Thermal conductivity of fluid

Let us multiply and divide by density then can we write Pr as;

Pr

Kinematic viscosity of fluid

cp

Thermal diffusivity of fluid

THE PRANDTL NUMBER -2

The Prandtl number is a ratio of two molecular transport properties
1. kinematic viscosity,
1. which is a measure of the rate of momentum transfer between
molecules and affects the velocity gradient
2. thermal diffusivity,
1. which is a measure of the ratio of heat transfer to energy
storage by molecules and affects the temperature gradient.
Pr number relates the temperature gradient to the velocity
gradient
Values of Pr much lower than unity means that
Near the wall the temperature gradient is less steep than the
velocity gradient
Fluids having high k such as liquid metals will have low Pr and
hence much less steeper temperature gradients near the wall
Values of Pr much lower than unity means that
Near the wall the temperature gradient is less steep than the
velocity gradient

THE PRANDTL NUMBER -3

Some experimental results to show the behavior of Temperature
variation as a function of distance from the wall for various Pr numbers

Heat Transfer Coefficient

Correlations -1

Correlations are classified into two main categories

External Flow
Examples
1. Flow over flat surfaces
2. Flow over/across
cylinder/tube banks etc.
3. Surfaces may be smooth
or rough

Internal Flow
Examples
1. Flow through conduits
circular / non-circular
2. Surfaces may be smooth or
rough

Laminar Flow in Circular Tubes -1

Fully Developed Region
write for fully developed
flow in one direction
substitute known velocity
profile for flow in tubes

One can develop the equation theoretically

T
T T
u

x
r r r r

u( r )
r

2 1
um

ro

where =0 and

For constant heat flux, the solution of the differential equation is:

11 q"s
Tm ( x ) Ts ( x )
48 k

q"s const

qs" h(TS Tm )
Combining with Newtons law of cooling:

48
k / D
h
11

Laminar Flow in Circular Tubes -2

For cases of uniform heat flux:
For cases of constant surface temperature:

Entry Region: Velocity and

Temperature are functions of x

Thermal entry length

problem: Assumes the
presence of fully
developed velocity profile
Combined (thermal and
velocity) entry length
problem: Temperature and
velocity profiles develop
simultaneously

Nu D

hD
4.36
k

NuD 3.66

qs" const

Ts const

Laminar Flow in Circular Tubes -3

For constant surface temperature condition:
.

Thermal Entry Length case

0.0668 ( D / L) Re D Pr
Nu D 3.66
1 0.04[( D / L) Re D Pr] 2 / 3
Combined Entry Length case

Re D Pr
Nu D 1.86

L/D

1/ 3

0.14

Ts const
0.48 Pr 16 ,700

0.0044
9.75
s

All properties, except s evaluated at average value of mean temperature

Tm

Tm ,i Tm ,o
2

Turbulent Flow in Circular Tubes -1

Internal Flow

Basic functional
form

Nu C Re

Pr L D
b

Correlation based on integral analysis

Nu 0.323 Re

Dittus Boelter Empirical relation

Nu 0.023 Re

0.8

POINTS TO REMEMBER (Most widely used equation)

1. Valid for flow through circular smooth tubes only
2. All fluid properties are evaluated at fluid mean
temperature of wall & bulk
3. Does not account for the effect of temperature
variation from wall to bulk on the fluid properties
4. Hence more suitable for either isothermal or nearly
isothermal flow
5. For a smooth surface, fully turbulent & developed
conditions
6. for small to moderate temperature differences Ts-Tb

Pr
Pr

0.6 Pr 100
n=0.4 for heating (Ts>Tb)
and 0.3 for cooling (Ts<Tb)

The experimental data

fits in 25% of the
correlation

Turbulent Flow in Circular Tubes -1

For a smooth surface, fully turbulent & developed conditions the Dittus
Boelter eq. may be used for small to moderate temperature differences Ts-Tb:

Nu D 0.023 Re0D.8 Pr n

0.6 Pr 100

n=0.4 for heating (Ts>Tb)

and 0.3 for cooling (Ts<Tb)

The experimental data fits in 25% of the correlation

For large property variations, Sieder and Tate equation:

Nu D 0.027 Re Pr
0.8
D

1/ 3

0.7 Pr 16,700
Re D 10,000

0.14

L / D 10

For developing region the correlation of Nusselt may be used

0.8
1 / 3 d
Nu D 0.036 Re D Pr
L

0.055

for

L
10 400
d

All properties, except s evaluated at average value of mean temperature

The Sieder Tate Correlation

For fully developed turbulent flow
For large property variations

Nu D 0.027 Re Pr
0.8
D

1/ 3

0.7 Pr 16,700

0.14

Re D 10,000
L / D 10

Cp, , , k = fluid properties evaluated at the average bulk fluid temperature

w = fluid viscosity evaluated at average wall temperature

To include the effect of entrance and exit

Nu D 0.027 Re Pr
s
0.8
D

1/ 3

0.14

D
1
L

10 L / D 60

Sieder Tate correlation is most accurate for fluids with

low to moderate Prandtl numbers (0.5 Pr 100)
which includes all gasses and low-viscosity process liquids such as water, organic
solvents, light hydrocarbons, etc.
Less accurate for highly viscous liquids, which have correspondingly large Prandtl
numbers.

Turbulent Flow in Circular Tubes -2

The effects of wall roughness may be considered by using
the Petukhov correlation

( f / 8) Re D Pr
NuD
1.07 12 .7( f / 8)1 / 2 (Pr 2 / 3 1)

n=0.11 for Tw >Tb

n=0.25 for Tw <Tb
n=0for constant heat flux or for gases

0.5 Pr 200

for 6% accuracy

104 Re D 5 106

200 Pr 2000

for 10% accuracy

0 b w 40

Where friction factor is for smooth tubes not rough tubes and can be
calculated using Moodys Chart OR correlation proposed by Petukhov

f 1.82 log10 Re 1.64

For smaller Reynolds numbers, Gnielinski correlation:

NuD

( f / 8)(Re D 1000 ) Pr
1 12 .7( f / 8)1 / 2 (Pr 2 / 3 1)

0.5 Pr 2000
3000 Re D 5 10 6

Turbulent Flow in Circular Tubes -3

For the effects of wall roughness for rough pipes the correlation
available are sparse
General approach is to use the following analogy between fluid
friction and heat transfer

f
St b Pr =
8
2

Nu
where St b =Stanton number =
Re Pr

Stanton Number is calculated at Tb where as Pr and fluid properties

involved in friction factor are evaluated at film temperature
In the fully rough regime, Bhatti and Shah provide the following
correlation for the local Nusselt number

Nu

( f / 8) Re Pr
1

f / 8 4.5 Re0.2 Pr 0.5 8.48

Valid for 104 Re

0.5 Pr 10
0.002 /D 0.05

hrough can be several times greater than hsmooth but would also increase pressure drop
Hence a compromise between h and pressure drop is made by designers

Turbulent Flow in Circular Tubes -4

For the specific case of heat transfer to superheated steam at high pressure use the
McAdams, Kennel and Addoms correlation

Nu 0.0214 Re Pr
0.8

1/ 3

2.3
1

L
/
D
e

All properties at film temperature

For non circular conduits use the concept of hydraulic diameter

Rest of the procedure remains the same

Flow parallel to tube bundles-1

S

Flow sub
channel
D

For the case of water cooled

fuel rods in nuclear reactors

Nu D C Re0D.8 Pr1/ 3
C is a constant depends on
lattice arrangements

C 0.042

S
0.024
D

for square lattices , 1.1

C 0.026

S
1.3
D

S
0.006
D

for triangular lattices , 1.1

S
1.5
D

Zukauskus correlations for

flow across tube bundles

NuD Pr 0.36 Pr

Prw f Re D
n

with n

for gases

for liquids

1
4

Properties evaluated at local bulk temperature

except Prw which is evaluated at Twall

100 Re 103
alligned rows

f Re D 0.52 Re D

staggered rows f Re D 0.71 Re D

0. 5

0.5

103 Re 2 105
alligned rows
f Re D 0.27 Re D

0.63

, ST S L 0.7

staggered rows
f Re D 0.35 ST S L
f Re D 0.40 Re D

0.6

0.2

Re D

0.6

, ST S L 2

, ST S L 2

Flow across tube bundles-2

Zukauskus correlations for flow across tube bundles
Re 2 105
alligned rows

f Re D 0.033 Re D

0.8

staggered rows f Re D 0.031 ST S L

Nu D 0.027 ST S L

0.2

Re D

0.8

0.2

, Pr 0.7

Re D

0.8

, Pr 1

Effect of Temperature on Velocity

Profiles

Turbulent velocity profile inside a conduit

Large temperature differences present in flow may appreciably change

the fluid properties between the wall of the tube and the central flow.
Deviations from the velocity profile for isothermal flow are a result of
an increase in the viscosity of gases with an increase in temperature,
while the viscosities of liquids decrease with an increase in

NATURAL CONVECTION

PHYSICAL MECHANISM OF NATURAL CONVECTION

Observed as a result of the motion of the fluid due to density
changes arising from the heating process.
Movement of the fluid in free convection, results from the buoyancy
forces imposed on the fluid when its density in the proximity of the
heat-transfer surface is decreased/increases as a result of the
heating/cooling process.
The buoyancy forces would not be present if the fluid were not
acted upon by some external force field such as gravity
Gravity is not the only type of force field that can produce the freeconvection currents
A fluid enclosed in a rotating machine is acted upon by a centrifugal
force field, and thus could experience free-convection currents if
one or more of the surfaces in contact with the fluid were heated.
The buoyancy forces that give rise to the free-convection currents
are called body forces

NATURAL CONVECTION

Primary variable is temperature

Express the net buoyancy force in terms of temperature differences.
To do this we require expressing the density difference in terms of a
temperature difference, which requires a knowledge of a property
that represents the variation of the density of a fluid with temperature
at constant pressure.
Property that provides that information is volume expansion coeff

In natural convection the condition of fluid sufficiently far from the

hot or cold surface is indicated by the subscript infinity, the value
at a distance where the presence of the surface is not felt.
In such cases, the volume expansion coefficient can be expressed
approximately by replacing differential quantities by differences as

NATURAL CONVECTION

Volume expansion coefficient of an ideal gas (P= RT) at a temperature

T is equivalent to the inverse of the temperature, = 1/T (1/K)
Large value of means a large change in density with temperature
Product T represents the fraction of volume change of a fluid that
corresponds to a temperature change T at constant pressure
Buoyancy force is to , which is to T at constant pressure.
Larger T between fluid adjacent to a hot (or cold) surface and the
fluid away from it, the larger the buoyancy force and the stronger
the natural convection currents and thus higher the heat transfer rate
Magnitude of the natural convection heat transfer between a surface
and a fluid is directly related to the flow rate of the fluid
Higher the flow rate, the higher the heat transfer rate.
In natural convection, no blowers are used, therefore the flow rate
cannot be controlled externally
Flow rate in this case is established by the dynamic balance of
buoyancy and friction.

NATURAL CONVECTION

the conservation of momentum in the x-direction

NATURAL CONVECTION
x-momentum equation in the still fluid outside the boundary layer can
be obtained from x-momentum eq. a special case by setting u = 0

Note that v << u in the boundary layer and thus v/x v/y 0,
and that there are no body forces (including gravity) in the ydirection, the force balance in that direction gives P/y = 0.
For a given x the pressure in the boundary layer is equal to the
pressure in the still fluid. Therefore, P = P(x) = P(x) and P/x =
P/x = -g

NATURAL CONVECTION

Making following dimensionless substitutions in x-momentum equation

The governing equations of natural convection then becomes

A vertical hot flat plate immersed in a quiescent fluid body

Natural convection flow to be steady, laminar, and two-dimensional
Fluid is Newtonian with constant properties including density
One exception: the density difference - is considered in the
buoyance force
It is this density difference between the inside and the outside of the
boundary layer that gives rise to buoyancy force and sustains flow.
(This is known as the Boussinesq approximation.)

NATURAL CONVECTION

Flow regime in forced convection is governed by Reynolds number,

Ratio of inertial force to viscous force acting on the fluid.
Flow regime in natural convection is governed by Grashof number,
Ratio of buoyancy force to viscous force acting on the fluid
Role played by Re No. in FC is played by Gr No. in NC
Gr No. provides the main criterion in determining whether the fluid
flow is laminar or turbulent in natural convection
For vertical plates, the critical Gr 109
Flow regime on a vertical plate becomes turbulent at Gr > 109
When a surface is subjected to external flow, the problem involves
both natural and forced convection
Relative importance of each mode of heat transfer is determined by
the value of the coefficient GrL/Re2L
Natural convection effects are negligible if GrL/Re2L << 1
Free convection dominates if GrL/Re2L >> 1
Both effects are significant and must be considered if GrL/Re2L = 1

NATURAL CONVECTION

Natural convection heat transfer on a surface depends on

Geometry of the surface and its orientation
Variation of temperature on the surface
Thermo-physical properties of the fluid involved
Mechanism of NC is well known BUT
Complexities of fluid motion make it very difficult to obtain simple
analytical relations for heat transfer by solving the governing equations
of motion and energy
Some analytical solutions exist for natural convection for simple
geometries and under simplified assumption only
Hence heat transfer relations in natural convection are based on
experimental studies
Some of are best known and widely used are given in your book
The simplest mathematical form of the NC correlations
Ra =
Rayleigh Number

NATURAL CONVECTION

Constants C and n depend on

The geometry of the surface
The flow regime, (characterized by the range of the Rayleigh number)
n = 1/4 usually for laminar flow
n = 1/3 usually for turbulent flow
Value of the constant C is normally less than 1.
Fluid properties are evaluated at film temperature Tf =1/2 (Ts + T).

NATURAL CONVECTION

BASIC CONCEPTS &

-1
Why heat transferTERMINOLOGIES
with phase change is important
Liquids are subjected to high heat fluxes. Resulting in
1. Liquids attaining saturation or superheated temperatures
2. Causing liquids to boil due to phase change
3. Causing dissolved gases to come out of the liquid forming bubbles
4. Causing other phenomena which generate bubbles
1. This bubble formation cause agitation and turbulence, resulting in
1. High heat transfer rates a benefit
2. Void are formed, undesirable in nuclear reactors, affects moderation
3. Heat fluxes, limited due to burnout (leading to structural instability)
2. Hence, an in-depth knowledge of phase-change behavior of working
fluid can result in better performance of nuclear reactors
1. Two-phase coolant thermal conditions in accidental loss of coolant
2. Provision of sufficient safety margin between anticipated transient
heat fluxes and critical boiling heat fluxes

BASIC CONCEPTS &

TERMINOLOGIES
-2
TERMS USED TO DESCRIBE PHASE CHANGE PROCESSES
VAPORIZATION
Conversion of liquid into vapors
EVAPORATION
Conversion of liquid into vapors below boiling point
BOILING
Formation of vapors within a liquid phase at and above boiling point
TWO-PHASE FLOW
Where both the vapor and liquid move together in a channel
CONDENSATION
Reverse of evaporation

BASIC CONCEPTS &

TERMINOLOGIES -3
CLASSIFICATION OF BOILING
BASED ON THE LOCATION OF BOILING PHENOMENON

BASED ON THE MECHANISM OF BOILING

BASED ON THE TEMPERATURE CONDITIONS OF FLUID

BASIC CONCEPTS &

TERMINOLOGIES -4
BASED ON THE LOCATION OF BOILING PHENOMENON

POOL BOILING
NON FLOW

Boiling due to heat added to the liquid

by a surface in contact with or
submerged within the liquid

VOLUME OR BULK BOILING

CAN BE NON FLOW
OR FLOW BOILING

Boiling due to heat generation

within the liquid by chemical or
nuclear reaction

BASIC CONCEPTS &

TERMINOLOGIES -5

BASED ON THE MECHANISM OF BOILING

NUCLEATE BOILING

bubbles are formed around a small

nucleus of vapors or gas
pool nucleate boiling or
volume nucleate boiling

FILM BOILING
there is a formation of a continuous
film of vapor that blankets the
heating surface

there is only pool film boiling rather than

volume film boiling

Under certain conditions nucleate and film boiling coexist

Partial film boiling, Partial nucleate boiling, Transition film boiling, Unstable
nucleate film boiling etc.

BASIC CONCEPTS &

TERMINOLOGIES -6

BASED ON THE TEMPERATURE OF LIQUID

SATURATED BOILING

bulk of the liquid is at saturation

temperature

In saturated boiling, the

bubbles rise to the liquid
surface where they are
detached

SUBCOOLED BOILING

bulk of the liquid is subcooled

In sub-cooled boiling, the bubbles begin to

rise but may collapse before they reach the
liquid surface

An important
point

to generate bubbles the heating surface must be at

temperature > saturation, consequently some of the liquid
immediately adjacent to that surface, is superheated

BASIC CONCEPTS &

TERMINOLOGIES -7
HENCE
BOTH SATURATED AND SUBCOOLED BOILING CAN BE
NUCLEATE OR FILM BOILING
WHEREAS VOLUME OR BULK BOILING CAN ONLY BE
SATURATED BOILING
TWO-PHASE FLOW CLASSIFICATION
BASED ON HEAT TRANSFER
DIABATIC
WITH BOILING

ADIABATIC
WITHOUT BOILING

BASIC CONCEPTS &

TERMINOLOGIES -8
BASED ON COMPONENTS

Single component flow

Water and steam

Two component flow

Water and air

IN BOTH THESE TYPES OF TWO PHASE FLOW

1. Vapor and liquid flow at different velocities
2. Vapors normally flow faster than liquid
3. The ratio of their velocities is called slip ratio

BUBBLE STATICS AND DYNAMICS

-1
BUBBLE FORMATION REQUIRES LIQUID SUPERHEAT
(to what degree later)
Bubble Formation Aided By So Called Nucleation Aids
1.
.
.
.

DISSOLVED GASES OR VAPORS PRESENT IN LIQUID

Prominent in nuclear reactors
the presence of ionization radiations
Charged particles presence in bubbles aid bubble motion
h in nuclear reactores > h in conventional boilers for similar conditions
1.
.
.
.

CAVITIES OR CREVICES ON THE SOLID SURFACE

Never completely filled due to surface tension
Retain gases
Centers of high temperature

BUBBLE STATICS AND DYNAMICS

-2
1. WETTING CHARACTERISTICS OF SOLID SURFACE
Term Wetting Always Refer To The Liquid Phase
Depends on the interaction of solid, liquid and gas at interface
For a bubble resting on a solid surface there are three interfaces
1.

Solid-liquid interface, function of liquid and solid surface properties

2.

Liquid-vapor interface, function of liquid and vapor phase properties

3.

Solid-vapor interface, function of vapor and solid surface properties

Making a force balance along the surface reveals

gs fs fg cos

BUBBLE STATICS AND DYNAMICS

-3
If > 90, unwetted surface

If < 90, wetted surface

If = 90, borderline wetted and unwetted

surface

BUBBLE STATICS AND DYNAMICS

-4
SURFACES DESIRABLE FOR BUBBLE FORMATION ???
First study Bubble Growth
> 90,
lesser superheat required

Depends on
If > 90, facilitates
bubble grows / larger bubbles

> 90, larger bubbles,

film is readily formed,

Film, lesser heat transfer,

not desired

If < 90,
More superheat required

< 90,
Smaller Bubbles

No Film, higher heat

transfer, desired

< 90
Bubble more easily

BUBBLE STATICS AND DYNAMICS

-5
To form a bubble some degree of superheat is required
(ODD isnt it)
Consider a stable floating bubble of radius r in a saturated liquid
A force balance reveals

D2
pg p f D fg

4
But pg > pf to overcome
the surface tension force
Since pg corresponds to at least
Tsat,

pg p f

4 fg
D

Bubble is at thermal equilibrium

Tg = Tf
Hence, Tf > Tsat
Liquid is superheated

BUBBLE STATICS AND DYNAMICS

-6
What degree of superheat is required
pg p f

4 fg
D

2 fg

pg = vapor pressure of
liquid inside bubble

rc

h fg
dp

dT sat Tsat vg v f

pg & Tg vapor pressure and vapor

temperature can be related using
Clausius Clapeyron equation

Assume vapors exist

at Tsat (pg ) inside the
bubble & vg >> vf
Integrate between limits of
pg to pl & Tg to Tsat

dpg
dTg

dpg
pg

h fg
RTg2

h fg

Tg vg

dTg

using Ideal Gas

relation to get

BUBBLE STATICS AND DYNAMICS

-7
h fg
pg
ln
R
pl

1
1

T
T
g
sat

Combine to get

Tg Tsat

RTg Tsat
h fg

ln

2 fg
1

p f rc

Tg Tsat

h fg

pg
ln
pl

4 fg

2 fg

RTgTsat

pg p f

Tg Tsat

rc

2 fg Tsat
h fg g rc

If rc the order of molecular dimension Tg Tsat quite large,

BUBBLE STATICS AND

DYNAMICS -7
For water, predicted T T 220 C,
g

sat

Measured Tg Tsat 16oC

Thanks to dissolved gases, which
reduce required vapor pressure for
bubble mechanical equilibrium, i.e.

pg pvap p f

4 fg
D

2 fg
rc

Bubble Detachment
Process

The various stages in the pool

boiling curve

Nucleate Boiling

Transition Boiling

Film Boiling

BOILING REGIMES
BOILING HEAT TRANSFER - History
1. Nukiyama (1934)
Performed an experiment using an electrically heated platinum
wire
immersed in water BOILING CURVE
2. Gaertner (1965)
Vapour structures in nucleate boiling
HOW DO YOU THINK BOILING PHENOMENA GOES AS
TEMPEATURE OF THE HEATING SURFACE CHANGES

SATURATED POOL BOILING CURVE

-1
Reveals range of conditions associated with saturated pool boiling
Water at Atmospheric Pressure

Free Convection
Te 5oC
Little vapor formation.
Liquid motion is due principally to single-phase natural convection.
Onset of Nucleate Boiling ONB Te 5oC

SATURATED POOL BOILING CURVE

-2
Nucleate Boiling 5 T 30 C
Isolated Vapor Bubbles 5 T 10 C
o

- Liquid motion is strongly influenced by nucleation

of bubbles at the surface.
- h and qs" increase sharply with increasing Te
- Heat transfer is principally due to contact of liquid
with the surface (single-phase convection) and not
due to vaporization.

Jets and Columns 10 Te 30oC

- Increasing number of nucleation sites causes bubble interactions and
coalescence into jets and slugs.
- Liquid/surface contact is impaired
- qs" continues to increase with Te while h begins to decrease.

SATURATED POOL BOILING CURVE

T 30 C
Critical Heat Flux - CHF, q-3
o

max

Maximum attainable heat flux in nucleate boiling.

q"max 1 MW/m2 for water at atmospheric pressure

Potential Burnout for Power-Controlled Heating

An increase in q"s beyond q"max causes the surface to be blanketed by
vapors and the surface temperature can spontaneously achieve a value
that potentially exceeds its melting point (Ts > 1000 oC)
If the surface survives the temperature shock, conditions are
characterized by film boiling

Film Boiling
Heat transfer is by conduction and radiation across the vapor blanket

A reduction in q"s follows the cooling curve continuously to Leidenfrost

point corresponding to minimum heat flux q"min for film boiling

Saturated Pool Boiling Curve

(SPBC) -4

A reduction in q"s below q"min causes an abrupt reduction in surface

temperature to the nucleate boiling regime.
Transition Boiling for Temperature-Controlled Heating
Characterized by a continuous decay of q"s (from q"max to
q"min with increasing Te
Surface conditions oscillate between nucleate and
film boiling, but portion of surface experiencing
film boiling increases with Te
Also termed unstable or partial film boiling.

SPBC IN HEAT FLUX CONTROLLED

MODE

SATURATED POOL BOILING CURVE

-5

SATURATED POOL BOILING CURVE

-6

SATURATED POOL BOILING CURVE

2
1. As many as three different heating surface temperatures can
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

be attained at the same heat flux

Safer to operate at the lowest possible temperature against the
highest heat flux
Thus normal operation is in the region of NUCLEATE
BOILING
In actual practice q is the independent variable and Ts is the
dependent variable
When qc is reached, any further increase in q results in a
temperature jump from C to E
Temperature at E normally exceeds the safe surface
temperature limits.
The condition is referred as BURNOUT and heat flux is
referred as BURNOUT OR CRITICAL HEAT FLUX

THE FLOW BOILING CURVE - 1

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Curve a is for the liquid bulk temperature

Curve b is for the heating surface temperature at low heat flux
Curve b is for the heating surface temperature at high heat flux
Rise in Ts at point of DNB is sudden
Height and width of this rise and fall of Ts depends on many
things

THE FLOW BOILING CURVE - 2

Boiling Heat Transfer Correlations

Pool saturated boiling in Nucleate Boiling Region: Clean heating surfaces

THE ROHSENOW CORRELATION

c pf T
h fg Pr

m 1

q
Csg
f h fg

g c fg

0.33

g f g

qw
qw
h

Tw Tsat T

h L 1
Nu

Re1n Pr m
kf
Csg

Where, Csg
1. Dimensionless constant determined
experimentally for various surfaces and fluids
2. 0.0133 (water stainless steel system)
3. Depends on surface wettability
4. Determined by noting q" and T in a single
experiment
Prs exponent varies from 0.8 to 2 due to the
presence of contaminants

g f g

Boiling Heat Transfer Correlations

Boiling Heat Transfer Correlations

Pool saturated boiling Minimum Heat Flux
The Zuber Correlation For Large Horizontal Plates

Pool saturated boiling Minimum Heat Flux

The Bromley Correlation For Horizontal cylinders or Spheres

where kv is the thermal conductivity of the vapor in W/mC

The vapor properties are to be evaluated at the film temperature, given as Tf =(Ts + Tsat)/2,
which is the average temperature of the vapor film.

Condensation Heat Transfer

1. Condensation TvaporCorrelations
< Tsat

2. Usually done by contacting vapor with solid surface whose Tsur < Tsat
Condensation can also occur on the free surface of a liquid or even in
a gas when the Tliq ot Tgas < Tsat
3. For the case of gas, liquid droplets suspended in the gas form a fog
4. Two distinct forms of condensation are observed
Film condensation:
1. Condensate wets the surface & forms a liquid film on the surface
that slides down under the influence of gravity
2. The thickness of the liquid film increases in the flow direction as
more vapor condenses on the film
3. liquid wall between solid surface and the vapor serves as a
resistance to heat transfer
4. Heat of vaporization hfg released as vapor condenses must pass
through this resistance before it can reach the solid surface and be
transferred to the medium on the other side

Condensation Heat Transfer

Dropwise condensation. Correlations

1. The condensed vapor forms droplets on the surface instead of a

continuous film
2. The surface is covered by countless droplets of varying diameters
3. The droplets slide down when they reach a certain size, clearing the
surface and exposing it to vapor again
4. There is no liquid film in this case to resist heat transfer.
5. Result, 10 times larger heat transfer rates than film condensation
6. Dropwise condensation is the preferred mode of condensation in
heat transfer applications
7. People have long tried to achieve sustained dropwise condensation
by using various vapor additives and surface coatings.
8. These attempts have not been very successful, however, since the
dropwise condensation achieved did not last long and converted to
film condensation after some time.
9. A common practice to be conservative and assume film condensation
in the design of heat transfer equipment

Condensation Heat Transfer

1. Film condensation. Correlations
. As in single phase forced convection involving,
condensation heat transfer also depends on
whether condensate flow is laminar or turbulent
. Criterion for the flow regime is provided by the
Reynolds number, which is defined as

Typical velocity &

temp profiles of the
condensate

Condensation Heat Transfer

hfg is the heat released Correlations
as a unit mass of vapor condenses

It represents the heat transfer per unit mass of condensate formed

during condensation
In an actual condensation process condensate is cooled further to
some average temperature between Tsat and Ts, releasing more heat in
the process.
Therefore, the actual heat transfer should be and is larger
Rohsenow showed in 1956 that the cooling of the liquid below the
saturation temperature can be accounted for by replacing hfg by the
modified latent heat of vaporization h*fg, defined as
Eq. A
Similar argument for vapor that enters the condenser as superheated
vapor at a temperature T instead of as saturated vapor

Condensation Heat Transfer

Similar argument for vapor
that enters the condenser as superheated
Correlations

vapor at a temperature T instead of as saturated vapor

Here the vapor must be cooled first to Tsat before it can condense
This sensible heat must be transferred to the wall as well
Amount of heat released as a unit mass of superheated vapor at a
temperature T is cooled to Tsat is simply Cp(Tv - Tsat), where properties
of vapor are evaluated at the average temperature of (Tv + Tsat)/2
The modified latent heat of vaporization in this case becomes
Eq. B
With these considerations, rate of heat transfer can be expressed as
Eq. C
1. If condensed vapors are sub cooled, h*fg is given by Eq. A
2. If superheated vapors are cooled before condensation h*fg is
given by Eq. B

Condensation Heat Transfer

Using these definitions
one can redefine Reynolds number as
Correlations

Very convenient form of Reynolds number when the condensation

heat transfer coefficient or the rate of heat transfer is known
All the properties of the liquid evaluated at the film temperature
Tf = (Tsat + Ts)/2, which is approximately the average temperature of
the liquid.
hfg evaluated at Tsat as it is not affected by the sub- cooling of liquid

Condensation Heat Transfer

Flow Regimes
in condensation heat transfer
Correlations
Laminar, smooth and wave-free
Re 30
Wavy-laminar
450 < Re < 1800
Turbulent for Re > 1800
Some disagreement exists about the
value of Re at which the flow
becomes wavy-laminar or turbulent

Film Condensation Heat Transfer

Vertical
plates Laminar flow
Correlations

Analytical relation for h on a vertical

plate, first developed by Nusselt in 1916.
Assumptions:
1. Both plate & vapor are maintained at
constant temperatures of Ts & Tsat.
Temperature across liquid film varies
linearly
2. Heat transfer across liquid film is by
pure conduction (no convection in
liquid film)
3. Velocity of vapor is low (or zero). So
no drag on condensate (no viscous
shear on the liquidvapor interface)
4. Flow of the condensate is laminar and
the properties of the liquid are constant
5. Acceleration of condensate layer is

Film Condensation Heat Transfer

Correlations

Liquid film thickness at any location x

Heat transfer rate from
vapor to plate at location x
Local heat transfer coefficient hx

Average heat transfer coefficient over the entire plate

Film Condensation Heat Transfer

These relations are observed
to under-predict heat transfer because they
Correlations

do not take into account the effects of

1. Nonlinear temperature profile in the liquid film
2. Cooling of the liquid below the saturation temperature.
. Both of these effects can be accounted for by replacing hfg by h*fg
. With this modification, average heat transfer coefficient for laminar
film condensation over a vertical flat plate of height L becomes

At a given temperature, v << l & l - v = l except near critical point

Heat transfer coefficient

hvert in terms of Re

Film Condensation Heat Transfer

Wavy Laminar Flow onCorrelations
Vertical Plates

The increase in heat transfer due to the wave effect is, on average,
about 20 percent, but it can exceed 50 percent.
The exact amount of enhancement depends on the Reynolds number.
Based on his experimental studies, Kutateladze (1963) recommended

A simpler alternative to relation above proposed by Kutateladze (1963)

A relation for the Reynolds number in the wavy laminar region can be
determined by substituting the h from above Eq. into the Re relation

Film Condensation Heat Transfer

Correlations

Turbulent Flow (Re 1800) on Vertical Plates

Several empirical relations of varying degrees of complexity are
known
Again assuming v l Labuntsov (1957) proposed the following

Physical properties of condensate are evaluated at film temperature

Re relation in this case is obtained by substituting h relation above
into the Re relation

Film Condensation Heat Transfer

Non-dimensionalized
heat transfer coefficients for wave-free
Correlations

laminar, wavy laminar and turbulent flow of condensate on vertical

plates

Film Condensation Heat Transfer

Inclined Plates
Correlations

For laminar film condensation on the upper surfaces of plates that are
inclined by an angle from the vertical, by replacing g in that equation
by g cos in the earlier modified Nusselt equation

Vertical Tubes
Equation for vertical plates can also be used to
calculate the average heat transfer coefficient
for laminar film condensation on the outer
surfaces of vertical tubes provided that the tube
diameter is large relative to the thickness of the
liquid film

Film Condensation Heat Transfer

Horizontal Tubes and Spheres
Correlations

Nusselts analysis of film condensation on vertical plates can also be

extended to horizontal tubes and spheres.
The average heat transfer coefficient for film condensation on the outer
surfaces of a horizontal tube is determined to be
For a sphere by replace the
constant 0.729 by 0.815
Comparison of the heat transfer coefficient relations for a vertical tube
of height L and a horizontal tube of diameter D

Heat Exchangers
1. Heat transfer, study of the rates at which heat is exchanged
between heat sources and receivers
2. Process heat transfer deals with the rates of heat exchange as
they occur in the heat-transfer equipment
IMPORTANT VARIABLES IN PHT
3. The temperature difference between the source and receiver
4. The quantities of heats to be transferred
5. The rates at which they may be transferred considering
1. The natures of the bodies (Working fluids)
2. The driving potential (T)
3. The extent and arrangement of the surface separating the source
and receiver (Surface areas and their shapes)
4. The amount of mechanical energy which may be expended to
facilitate the transfer (P)
5. In PHT, heat lost by one body = the heat absorbed by another
within the confines of the system

Heat Exchangers
NATURE OF CONSTRUCTION
Double Pipe Heat Exchanger

Heat Exchangers
Shell and tube Heat Exchanger

Heat Exchangers
Plate and Frame Heat Exchanger

Heat Exchangers
Spiral Type Heat Exchanger

Heat Exchangers
Compact Heat Exchanger

Heat Exchangers
Nature of Operation
Cooler

Cools process stream, usually by water, but can be by

air as in air cooler or by other Process fluid

Heater

Heats fluid (adds sensible heat) but does not vaporize.

Heating medium is usually steam, or similar fluid that
condenses at pressure and temperature desired,
imparting its latent heat to fluid (gas or liquid).

Chiller

Cools process stream by refrigerant at temperature

lower than prevailing water, can be chilled by water
cooling the process fluid or by refrigerant such as
ammonia, propylene, and freon

(a) Condenses all vapors (pure or mixed) entering

Condenser (b) Condenses all condensable vapor, cools the gases
termed a cooler-condenser.

Co & Counter Flow

Co Current or Parallel Flow

t1

Cold Fluid

qc

t2

T1

Hot Fluid

qh

T2

Counter-Current Flow

t1
T2

Cold Fluid

qc

t2

Hot Fluid

qh

T1

Co & Counter Flow

Co Current or Parallel Flow
Temperature Profile

Counter Current Flow

Temperature Profile

T1

T1
T2
Cold Fluid

t2

Temperature

Temperature

Hot Fluid

t2

Hot Fluid

Cold Fluid

T2

t1

t1
Distance Along the Flow Path

Distance Along the Flow Path

Overall Coefficient of Heat

Transfer

1. When hot and cold fluids are flowing from different

sides of the wall, the resistances encountered in heat
transfer are:
1. Film resistance on one side of the wall
2. Wall resistance
3. Film resistance on other side of the wall

2. In case of two concentric pipes, the resistance

encountered are:
1. Pipe fluid film resistance
2. Pipe wall resistance
3. Annulus fluid film resistance

Overall Coefficient of Heat

Transfer

Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient is the

reciprocal of the sum of all the resistances

In This Case Resistances are in

Series

Heat Transfer Rate is given by

1
1 Lm 1
R

U
hi km ho

Q UAt

qh qc mhC ph Th mc C pc Tc

Very

Overall Coefficient of Heat

Transfer
1. Pipe has different areas on its inside and outside surfaces
2. hi & ho must be referred to the same heat flow area
3. If the outside area A of the inner pipe is used, then h i must be
multiplied by Ai/A to give the value that hi would have if
originally calculated on the basis of the larger area A instead
of Ai.

hio hi Ai A

1.

The Controlling Film

Coefficient
When the resistance of the pipe metal is small

by
comparison with the sum of the resistances of both film
coefficients, and it usually is, it may be neglected

1 1 1

U hi ho
2. If one film coefficient is small & the other very large, the
small coefficient provides the major resistance & the
overall coefficient of heat transfer for the apparatus is
very nearly the reciprocal of the major resistance

e.g hi 10 & ho 1000

When a significant difference exists, the smaller coefficient
controlling film coefficient

is

the

1.

Log Mean Temperature

Difference
The temperature
difference between two streams (hot

& cold) is the driving force for heat transfer

2. At every point (T-t) between two streams differs
3. LMTD is obtained from T-t Vs Q or T-t Vs L
Q UAt

dQ U (T t )adL
dQ WCdT wcdt

Gives

t2 t1
t LMTD
ln t2 t1

Log Mean Temperature

Difference
For Co Current or Parallel
Flow LMTD

(T1 t1 ) (T2 t2 )
t LMTD
ln (T1 t1 ) (T2 t2 )
For Counter Current Flow
LMTD

(T1 t2 ) (T2 t1 )
t LMTD
ln (T1 t2 ) (T2 t1 )

Equivalent Diameter (De)

1. When a fluid flows in a conduit having other than a

circular cross section, such as an annulus, it is
convenient to express heat transfer coefficients and
friction factors by the same type of equations and
curves used for pipes and tubes
2. To permit this type of representation for for annulus
heat transfer it has been found advantageous to
employ an equivalent diameter De

Equivalent Diameter (De)

1. The equivalent diameter is four times the hydraulic radius, and
the hydraulic radius is, in turn, the radius of a pipe equivalent
to the annulus cross section
2. The hydraulic radius is obtained as the ratio of the flow area to
the wetted perimeter

Equivalent Diameter (De)

1. The wetted perimeter for heat transfer and pressure drop are
different
2. For Heat Transfer
1. Wetted perimeter is the outer circumference of the inner pipe with
diameter D1

4 Flow _ Area
De 4 rH
4
Wetted _ Perimeter

4 D22 D12
D1

D22 D12

D1

Equivalent Diameter (De)

1. For Pressure Drop
1. In pressure drop calculations the friction not only results from
the resistance of the outer pipe but is also affected by the
outer surface of the inner pipe
2. The total wetted perimeter is the sum of circumference of out
side of inner pipe and inside of outer pipe

De 4 rH

4 Flow _ Area
4
Wetted _ Perimeter

4 D22 D12
( D2 D1 )

D2 D1

Fouling Factors
1. When U has been obtained from
values of hio & ho and Q & t are
calculated
from
the
process
conditions
2. Surface area A required for the
process can be calculated
3. This Calculation of A is known as
design and the U is called Uc clean
overall heat transfer coefficient
4. Dirt & scale deposit on the inside
and outside of the pipe, adding two
more resistances

Fouling Factors
1. The addition of resistances reduce the original value
of U, and the required amount of heat is no longer
transferred by the original surface A
2. T2 rises and t2 falls below the desired outlet
temperature, although hi and ho remains constant
3. To overcome this, the deposition of dirt & scale is
anticipated by introducing a resistance Rd called dirt,
scale or fouling factor

Fouling Factors
1. The value of U obtained only form h i & ho may be considered as
the clean overall coefficient Uc
2. The coefficient which includes the dirt resistance is called design
or dirty overall coefficient UD
3. The value of A corresponding to UD rather than UC provides the
basis on which equipment is ultimately built

1
1
1

R fi R fo
Rf
U D UC
UC

. For a typical heat transfer between two fluids through a pipe

or tube wall

. When Rd (deposited) > Rd (allowed)

. The apparatus no longer delivers a quantity of heat equal to
the process requirements and must be cleaned

121

Shell & Tube Heat Exchanger

Shell &
Tube Heat
Exchanger

Shell & Tube Heat Exchanger

Baffles Segmental
Baffles

25 % cut baffles

Baffles Segmental
Baffles

Baffles Segmental
Baffles

25 % cut baffles

Baffles Segmental
Baffles

25 % cut baffles

Baffles Segmental
Baffles

50 % cut baffles

Baffles Disc & Doughnut

Baffles

Disc & Doughnut Baffles

Baffles Disc & Doughnut Baffles

Disc & Doughnut Baffles

Baffles Orifice Baffles

Orifice Baffles

Baffles Orifice Baffles

Orifice Baffles

Baffles
.. Higher heat transfer coefficients result when a liquid is
maintained in a state of turbulence
.. To introduce turbulence outside the tubes it is customary to
employ baffles which cause the liquid to flow through the shell
at right angles to the axis of the tubes
.. The centre to centre distance between baffles is called the baffle
pitch or baffle spacing
.. Mass velocity is not entirely dependent upon the diameter of the
shell
.. The baffle spacing is usually not greater than a distance equal to
the inside diameter of the shell or closer than a distance equal to
one-fifth the inside diameter of the shell
.. The baffles are held securely by means of baffle spacers
.. Segmental baffles are most common
.. In fig. on previous slide known as 25 % cut baffles
.. Provides up and down or side to side flow

Tube Pitch

Tube Pitch

Tube Pitch

138

Tube Pitch

Tube Pitch
.. Tube holes cannot be drilled very close together, since
too small a width of metal between adjacent tubes
structurally weakens the tube sheet
.. The shortest distance between two adjacent tube holes is
the clearance
.. Tubes are laid out on either square or triangular
patterns
.. The advantage of square pitch is that the tubes are
accessible for external cleaning and cause a lower
pressure drop when fluid flows in the direction indicated
.. The tube pitch PT is the shortest center-to-center
distance between adjacent tubes

Equivalent Diameter (De), Shell Side

De 4 rH

4 Flow Area
Wetted Perimeter

Clearance = C

For Heat Transfer OR P, Square Pitch

2
4 P d o
4

De 4 rH
do

Pitch = P

For Heat Transfer OR P, Triangular Pitch

De

1 2
1
P 0.86 P
d o
24
2
1
do
2

Pitch = P
Clearance = C

FLOW AREA, SHELL SIDE

Use of baffles makes fluid flow in directions perpendicular to the
axis of shell
Thus for mass velocity G the flow area is not the cross-sectional
area of shell
The number of times the fluid crosses the axis of shell depends on
the number of baffles N Number of crosses = N + 1
L(tube length in inches)
N 1
B (Baffle Spacing in inches)

If both shell nozzles are on opposite sides of the shell

There should always be an odd number of crosses
If both shell nozzles are on the same side of the shell
There should always be an even number of crosses
With close baffle spacing such as 6. and under, one baffle may be
omitted if the number of crosses is not an integer

Shell & Tube Heat

Exchanger-Parts

1. Shell
2. Tube Sheets
3. Channels
4. Channel Cover
5. Transverse
Baffles
6. Baffle Spacers

1-1 Shell & Tube Heat

Exchanger

1-2 Shell & Tube Heat

Exchanger

U-Tube Heat Exchanger

Number of Passes

1-2 Shell & Tube Heat Exchanger

Number of Passes

2- 4 Shell & Tube Heat Exchanger

Number of Passes

3- 6 Shell & Tube Heat Exchanger

True T in a 1-2 Exchanger

True T in a 1-2 Exchanger

Range of a Heat Exchanger
The actual temperature rise or fall in a heat exchanger
For the hot fluid is (T1 - T2) and for the cold fluid (t1 - t2)
Approach of a Heat Exchanger
For counter-flow it is the number of degrees between
. The hot fluid inlet and co1d fluid outlet, T1 - t2,

OR
. The hot-fluid outlet and cold fluid Inlet, T2 - t1

Which ever is smaller

Thus a close approach means that one terminal difference will be
very small, a significant factor in heat transfer

True T in a 1-2 Exchanger

.. Relative to the shell fluid, one tube pass is in counter flow and
the other in parallel flow
.. Greater temperature differences have been found to result
when the process streams are in counter flow and lesser
differences for parallel flow
.. 1-2 Exchanger is a combination of both, and the LMTD for
counter flow or parallel flow alone cannot be the true
temperature difference for a parallel flow counter flow
arrangement
.. Instead it is necessary to develop a new equation for
calculation of the effective or true temperature difference to
replace the counter flow LMTD

True T in a 1-2 Exchanger

t FT LMTD

1. Where

FT

R 2 1 ln (1 S ) (1 RS )

R 1 ln

2 S ( R 1 R 2 1)
2 S ( R 1 R 2 1)

&c p
T1 T2 m
tube side
R

,
&c p
t2 t1 m
shell side

t2 t1
P
T1 t1

1. Subscripts 1 & 2 represent the inlet & outlet, respectively.

2. T and t represent the shell- and tube-side temperatures

2. FT is plotted for various flow arrangements

3. FT will be less than one due to the fact that the tube passes in
parallel with the shell fluid do not contribute so effective a
temperature difference as those in counter flow with it

True T in a 1-2 Exchanger

1. Values of F for a 1-2 and 1-8 exchanger are less than 2 per
cent apart in the extreme case and generally considerably
less
2. Customary to describe any exchanger having one shell pass
and two or more even numbered tube passes in parallel flow
counter flow as a 1-2 exchanger
3. FT will always be less than 1.0 is naturally due to the fact;
that the tube passes in parallel with the shell fluid do not
contribute so effective a temperature difference as those in
counter flow with it
4. Accordingly it is not advisable or practical to use a 1-2
exchanger whenever the correction factor FT is computed to
be less than 0.75

The LMTD Method

LMTD method is easy to use, when T1, T2 and t1, t2 are known or
can be determined from an energy balance
Once LMTD, mass flow rates and U are available, heat transfer
surface area of heat exchanger can be determined: Q = U As LMTD
Thus LMTD method is very suitable for determining the size of a
heat exchanger to get the prescribed outlet temperatures when the
mass flow rates and the inlet and outlet temperatures of the hot and
cold fluids are specified.
The procedure to be followed by the selection process is:
1. Select the type of heat exchanger suitable for the application.
2. Determine any unknown inlet or outlet temperature and the heat
transfer rate using an energy balance
3. Calculate the LMTD and the correction factor FT
4. Obtain (select or calculate) U
5. Calculate the heat transfer surface area As and thus D and L
Task is completed by selecting a heat exchanger that has a heat transfer

The Effectiveness NTU Method

If the Type and Size of the heat exchanger
Then for a required fluid mass flow rates and inlet temperatures
What would be the heat transfer rate and the outlet temperatures of
the hot and cold fluids.
LMTD method could still be used for this problem, but requires
tedious iterations, thus not practical
Kays & London (1955) method called, effectivenessNTU method
Greatly simplified heat exchanger analysis
Based on a dimensionless parameter called heat transfer
effectiveness