Sheet Metalworking Processes

Cutting
Bending
Stretch Forming
Deep Drawing
Stretch Drawing (Stamping)

Sheet Metalworking Materials

Steels
Low carbon steels (<0.15% C)
Rimmed steels,
Killed steels, DQSK (drawing quality special killed steel)
Interstitial-free steels (without Lders lines effect)
High-strength steels
Cold rolled steels
Partially annealed
Annealed
High-strength, low-alloy steel (HSLA)
Coated steels
Tin plate
Galvanized steel (Zn, Zn-Al coating), galvannealed steel (Fe-Zn)
Stainless steel
Austenitic steels, high ductility
Aluminum (5000 series for automotive, 6000 for aerospace applications)

Automotive Steels
Types

Yield
(MPa)

Tensile
(MPa)

El. (%)

Examples

Mild Steels

<210

<400

30 40%

DKSQ

Medium
Strength
Steels

180 280

270 390

30 36%

Bake Hardenable Steels

High
Strength
(HSS)

210 350

270 420

20 25%

HSLA

Advanced
High
Strength
(AHSS)

280 500

490 980

20 30%

Dual phase, Martensitic,

TRIP (transformation
induced plasticity)

Composition and Strengthening Mechanism

Steel
Type

HSS Grade
Family

Alloying
Additions

Major
Constituents

Minor
Phases

Strength
Mechanisms

C-Mn

CHSS

Mn, P, Si

+ Fe3C

N/A

SS+GR

HSLA

CHSS

Ti, Nb, P,
Mn, Si, B

+ Fe3C

TiN, TiC,
NbC

SS+GR+
Precipitation
hard.

Dual
Phase

AHSS

Mn, Si, Nb, +

V
martensite

N/A

SS+GR+
Transformation
strengthening

TRIP

AHSS

Mn, Si, Al,

Cr, Mo, Ni

N/A

SS+GR+
Transformation
strengthening

+ bainite +
austenite

Relevant Material Properties

Discontinuous Yielding and Lders Lines
YS, TS, el., K, n, and r
r value is used to express the anisotropy of materials

w
r
t

Planar anisotropy

r0 r90 2r45
4

Normal anisotropy

rm

r0 r90 2r45
4

Relevant Material Properties

Strain hardening exponent n indicates the ductility of the material,
because u = n.
Tensile strength can be calculated as
n
TS K
e

where e is the base of the natural logrithm, e = 2.7183.

Shearing

Shearing force

n
Ps C1 (TS )hl C1K hl
e

where C1 = 0.7 on average

Shearing energy

Es C2 Ps h
where C2 = 0.5 for soft material,
0.35 for hard material.

Many Types of Operations

Bending
Neutral line depends on Rb/h ratio:
Rb/h >2 neutral line at 1/2 h,
Rb/h <=2, neutral line at 1/3 h.
Bending limit:
Orange peel
Localized necking
Fracture
Crushing

Springback

Elastic recovery of part after

bending is complete
Factors that make it worse:
Thinner sheet
Higher Strength material
Rb
R R
1 3 b 0.2 4 b 0.2
Rf
h E h E

Compensating for Springback

Overbend the part
Use a smaller radius
die
Elevate temperature
Stretch Bending
Repeat Bending
Forge Bend
Use a thicker sheet to
start with

Stretch Forming

a.
b.
c.

Single die required, low production rate

Male and female dies needed, high production rate
embossing

Deep Drawing
Blank is allowed to draw into
the die, and thickness is
normally unchanged.
Limiting Drawing Ratio (LDR)
LDR=d0 max / Dp
Constraint of blank-holder
gives improved process control
and quality

Forming Limit Diagram (FLD)

Experimental Strain Analysis

Experimental Strain Analysis

Stamping of Auto Body Parts

(Auto/Steel Partnership Publication, 1998)

Stamping Press
Main Bushing

Thermistor
Thermocouple

Linkage

Slide
Blank
Binder Ring

Accelerometer

Strain Gage

Main Shaft

Stamping Failure Diagnosis using Grid Marks

Hydroforming

(a)

Before Pressure
Die Open

(b)

Die Closing
(c)

1st

Pressure
Stage
Die Closing
(d)

2nd

Pressure
Stage
Die Closed

Automotive Structural Part

Stamped Dodge Dakota

Radiator Enclosure

Hydroformed Dodge Dakota

Radiator Enclosure

Part Consolidation and Weight Reduction

Stamped Radiator Closure

Hydroformed Radiator Closure

17 components

8 components ( -9 )

36.4 Ibs/16.5 kg

25.4 lbs/11.5 kg (-11 Ibs, -30%)

Forming of Tailor Welded Blanks

0.66mm

0.70mm

6ton-6ton

9.6ton-2.4ton

TWB Applications

Material Type

Stainless Steel

Aluminum

Mild Steel

Galvanized Steel

HSLA & Ultra HS Steel

Lower E Materials