Qualitative & Observation

Research

Conducting Focus
Group Interviews

Focus Group Interviews

Unstructured, free-flowing interviews with small
groups of people.
Consists of
Moderator or interviewer
6 to 10 participants
Note taker

Moderator introduces topic and encourages group

members to discuss the subject amongst
themselves.
Allow people to discuss their true feelings in their
own words

Advantages of Focus Group

Interviews

Relatively fast
Easy to execute
Inexpensive
Numerous topics can be discussed (unlike
surveys)
Multiple insights can be gained

Drawbacks of Focus Group

Interviews
Require sensitive and effective moderators
Without such, self-appointed participants may
dominate a session
Halo effect on attitudes toward the concept or
topic of discussion may occur, if group reacts
negatively to a dominant member

Participants may not be representative of

the population of interest.

Requirements for Effective Focus

Groups
Six to ten participants
Carefully screen participants
Want people who have knowledge about the topic at
hand

Homogeneous participants in terms of some

characteristic under study
Relaxed atmosphere
If possible, room with one-way mirror and audioand video-recording capabilities
Session duration around one hour
Trained moderator
Compensate for participation

7 Habits of Effective Moderators

1. Establish personal contact with each respondent
early
2. Help respondents feel relaxed early on
3. Win respondents to your side
4. Deal with loud respondents; but dont intimidate
other respondents

Dont look at them when you ask questions

Dont acknowledge their raised hands

5. Deal with inconsistent, unclear answers by

mobilizing the group to help
6. Create an environment where anything a
respondent wants to say is acceptable
7. Dont assume you know what a respondent means
by an ambiguous answer

When NOT to use Focus Groups

Emotionally charged environment
Researcher has lost control over critical
aspects of the study
Statistical projections are needed
Other methodologies can produce better
quality information
Other methodologies can produce more
economical information of the same quality
Researcher cannot ensure the
confidentiality of sensitive information

Types of Focus Group Questions

Opening Question
Round robin question
Designed to be answered rather quickly
Designed to identify characteristics participants have in
common
Preferably factual (rather than attitude or opinions)

Introductory Question
Introduce general topic of discussion

Key Questions
2 to 5 max
The questions you really want answers to

Ending Questions
Bring closure to the discussion. Most common is the
summary question

Some Things to Consider

Avoid Dichotomous Questions
Questions answerable with a yes or no

Avoid asking Why

Has a sharpness or pointedness that reminds one
of interrogations

Asked Uncued Questions first; Cued

Questions second
Uncued: Open-ended; usually based on recent
experiences or impressions
Cued: Questions that specify some topic or aspect
of a topic

Scientific Observation Is Systematic

YOU SEE, BUT YOU

DO NOT OBSERVE.
Sherlock Holmes

What is Observation Research?

The systematic process of recording the
behavioral patterns of people, objects, and
occurrences as they are witnessed.
No questioning or communicating with
people typically occurs.

Where observation is
concerned, chance favors only
the prepared mind.
Louis Pasteur

What Can Be Observed

Phenomena

Example

Human behavior or physical Shoppers movement

action
pattern in a store
Verbal behavior

Statements made by
airline travelers who wait
in line

Expressive behavior

Facial expressions, tone of

voice, and other form of
body language

What Can Be Observed

Phenomena

Example

Spatial relations
and locations

How close visitors at an

art museum stand to paintings

Temporal patterns

How long fast-food customers

wait for their order to be served

Physical objects

What brand name items are

stored in consumers pantries

Verbal and Pictorial

Records

Bar codes on product packages

Categories of Observation
Human versus mechanical
Visible versus hidden
Direct

Visible vs. Hidden Observation

Visible Observation
Observers presence is known to the subject.

Hidden Observation
Subject is unaware that observation is taking
place.
Minimizes respondent error

Direct Observation
Straightforward attempt to observe and
record what naturally occurs
The investigator does not create an
artificial situation
Observer Bias
Distortion of measurement resulting from the
cognitive behavior or actions of a witnessing
observer

Response Latency

Response Latency
Recording the decision time
necessary to make a choice
between two alternatives
It is presumed to indicate the
strength of preference between
alternatives.

Observation of Human Behavior

Benefits
Communication with respondent
not necessary
No distortions due to self-report
(e.g.: no social desirability) bias
No need to rely on respondents
memory
Nonverbal behavior data may be
obtained

Observation of Human Behavior

Benefits

Certain data may be obtained

more quickly
Environmental conditions may
be recorded
May be combined with survey
to provide supplemental
evidence

Observation of Human Behavior

Limitations
Cognitive phenomena cannot be
observed
Interpretation of data may be a
problem
Not all activity can be recorded
Only short periods can be observed
Observer bias possible
Possible invasion of privacy

Observation of Physical Objects

Physical-trace evidence
Wear and tear of a book
indicates how often it has been
read

Content Analysis
Obtains data by observing and
analyzing the content of
advertisements, letters, articles, etc.
Deals with the study of the message
itself
Measures the extent of emphasis or
omission

Mechanical Observation
Traffic
Counters
Web Traffic
Scanners
Physiological
Measures

Physiological Reactions

Eye tracking
Pupilometer
Psychogalvanometer
Voice pitch

Eye Tracking Monitors

Measure unconscious eye

movements
Record how the subject
actually reads or views an
advertisement

Pupilometer
Device observes and
records changes in the
diameter of the subjects
pupils.

Psychogalvanometer
Measures galvanic skin
response
Involuntary changes in
electrical resistance of the skin

Assumption:
physiological changes
accompany emotional reactions

Voice Pitch Analysis

Measures emotional
reactions through
physiological changes in a
persons voice

Measuring Physiological Reactions Problems

No strong theoretical evidence

supports argument that
physiological change is valid
measure of future sales, attitude
change, or emotional response
Calibration (or sensitivity) of the
measuring devices
Identifying arousal is one thing
Precisely measuring levels of arousal
is another

Measuring Physiological Reactions Problems

Expense of the measuring

devices
Subjects usually are place in
artificial surroundings and
know they are being observed