Radiology Exam 1 Notes

Dr. Osher

Ionizing Radiation
Ionizing Radiation
Energy is always transferred to any material with
which it interacts
Process where an atom GAINS or LOSES electrons in
the outer shell
Results in a net charge
Positive Ions=Cations
Negative Ions=Anions

X-rays have enough energy to cause atoms to ionize

Is harmful for DNA and such

Ionizing Radiation
Biologic Effects of Ionizing radiation are short and
long-term
May disrupt atomic structure
Can cause Temporary or permanent cellular damage
Can penetrate matter
Causes some materials to flouresce
Reacts with Silver Halide of film

Electricity and
Magnetism
2 Types of Electricity
Static ElectricityElectric Charge at Rest (In Coulombs)
CurrentMoving Electric Charges (In Amperes)

Ohms Law= V=IR

Direct CurrentFlow of electrons in ONE direction ONLY
Straight line

Alternating CurrentElectrons flow in ALTERNATE OPPOSITE directions

Sinusoidal wave
Flow from negative to positive (also vice versa)
Each change from negative to positive, or positive to negative, results in ONE
PULSE
2 pulses= one cycle
Equates to Power coming out of the wall

AC and DC Current
A steady DC voltage delivers more power than AC
voltage source of the same peak voltage

Amplitude of a sinusoidal AC voltage must be the

square root of 2 times greater than the steady value
of DC current to perform the same amount of
workRMS voltage

X-Ray Basics
X-ray Machine Components
Generator
X-Ray Tube
Control Panel

X-ray Energy is from 10^4 to 10^5 Electron volts

Tungsten= main material in Anode of X-ray

High melting point

X-Ray Machine
CANNOT USE AC CURRENT DIRECTLYpulsating Xray tube
Is not safe
Produces poor imagessoft radiation: contributes to
dosage the patient is getting ONLY
Hard on tube

Parts of the X-ray

Machine
X-Ray Generator
Supplies Electric Power to the X-ray tube
Needs to be
Transformed,
Rectified (goes in one directionusing diodes)
Smoothed out

Begins with a source of electrical energy

Wall Plug115 or 230 V
60Hz AC is standard in US

Modified to meet tube requirements

Filament heating requires 10Vproduces electrons

Electron acceleration requires between 40-150 kVp
Machines here are 60000-70000 V

Parts of the X-ray

Machine
X-ray Generator
Produces smooth, high voltage AC current out of lowvoltage AC current by
Transforming low-voltage AC current to high-voltage AC
current
Either increases or decreases voltage

Rectify high-voltage AC current with diodes

Makes it go all in one direction

Smooth voltage dips with capacitive filter, offset circutry,

or increases frequency

Parts of the X-ray

Machine
X-ray Generator
Transformers
Magnets are not the only source of Magnetic fields
Right-hand rulecurrent in a wire capable of generating a magnetic
field B
Current in coil of wire creates a weak magnetic fieldcreates a
solenoid
If iron core placed in center of solenoid, the magnetic field becomes
more intensebecomes an electromagnet
A wire carrying current experiences a force in a magnetic field
This force CANNOT be parallel to the magnetic field, B
F=LIB
B=magnetic field
I=current (in A)
L=length of wire

Parts of the X-ray

Machine
X-ray Generator
Transformers
A changing magnetic field produces a transient electric field
A changing electric field produces a transient magnetic field
Induced EMFs
Basis of the Transformer: Current flow through one coil can
cause mutual inductance in a 2nd coil wrapped around the same
iron core or rod
Induced EMFs exist in the coil only if flux through the coil is
changing
EMF= N x Change in flux (per unit time)
N=number of coils
If there are more coils on the battery sidevoltage steps down
If there are less coils on the battery sidevoltage steps up

Parts of the X-ray

Machine
X-ray Generator
Transformer
When an AC current flows through the primary coil, it
creates a changing magnetic field within the core
This field induces a current in the secondary coil
When battery is plugged up into the wall

There is no current flow when B is stable

This is why we cant use DC current

In AC current, the voltage changes continuouslytherefore

it cycles
Current flow in one direction while voltage is positive
Flows in opposite direction while voltage is negative

Parts of the X-ray

Machine
X-ray Generator
Transformer
Law #1 of transformers
Np/Ns=Vp/Vs

Law #2 of transformers
A transformer cannot create energy
Vp x Ip=Vs x Is

Step up transformer= Makes X-rays

Fewer turns on the primary side than the secondary side

Step down transformer=X-ray tube filament transformer

Heats filament

Steps down from left to right

Voltage In secondary will be less than primary

Auto-Transformerdetermines how much voltage will go into the step-up transformer

2V/turn of wire
Allows you to control primary voltage

Parts of the X-ray

Machine
Current Rectification
Allows the current to flow in one direction
Uses Diodes
DiodeEliminates AC flow
1 pulse out of 2 gets cut out
Cathode (-) and Anode (+)

Has a Space chargeelectrons boil out of the wire here

AC changes the polarity of the cathode and anode to
complete the circuit to get opposite charges to attract
One pulse gets cut outallows current to flow in one
direction

Parts of the X-ray

Machine
Current Rectification
Full-Wave Rectificationneeds 4 diodes
Diodes allow current in ONE directionare one way
systems
With Full-wave rectification, both halves of the
alternating voltage are used to produce x-rays
Half-wave rectification= 1 diode
60 pulses/second

Full-wave rectification= 4 diodes

120 pulses/second
Smoother result

Parts of the X-ray

Machine
Smoothing it Out
Disadvantages of Full-Wave Rectification
Tube pulsates and the anode receives rapidly varying
amounts of energy
Intensity of X-ray beam varies over each half cycle
The quality of the beam varies over each half cycle
Increased patient dose via soft radiationpulsating tube
(This is why we cant use DC current)

Capacitor is used to smooth out bumps in Full-wave

rectification
Capacitorstores charge
Quickly charge (lots of current coming in) and discharge
(current comes out)

Parts of the X-ray

Machine
Smoothing it out
Ripple factor--the variation in the voltage across the xray tube
Expressed as a percentage of its maximum value

Ripple Factors
Unfiltered= 100%=No capacitor
Filtered=less=Capacitor
Smaller ripple factors=better
Full-wave filtered=best ripple factor

Parts of the X-ray

Machine
X-ray Tube Head
Evacuated glass envelope and Cathode Ray Tube
CathodeTungsten=Negatively charged
Has Coiled Filaments

AnodeCopper= Positively Charged

Has an Embedded tungsten target

Window
Added filtration
Beam-limiting device
Cone/ collimating shutters

X-Ray Generation
X-Ray Generation (in the X-ray tube)
Electrons thermoionically boil-off filament embedded in the
cathode (-)
Tungstenboiled off electrons leave wire

Electrons shot (accelerated) at anode (+) target (made of

tungsten) by applying a STRONG POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE (kVp)
High KE electrons interact with target atoms to produce
photons in the x-ray wavelengthProduces X-rays in the
Anode
Electrons in the anode are conducted away by the copper
anode to complete the circuit
Cathode emits electronshits target and produces x-ray
radiation

X-Ray Generation
X-Ray Generation
Electrons all acquire about the same high terminal KE
Monochromatic keV
Over a very short distance (1-3 cm)
Is about velocity of light

X-ray beam is polyenergeticphotons are comprised

of varied energies (spectrum)
X-rays directed toward window and filter

X-Ray Generation
X-Ray Generation
Not all X-rays are alike
Faster moving electrons produce higher energy,
shorter wavelength photons
Slower moving electrons produce Low energy and
high wavelength photons
Electrons have about the same average KE, and still
produce a varied X-ray spectrum

X-Ray Tube Details

Cathodes
Emits electronsproduces the electrons
Helps generate a strong potential difference across a
small evacuated gap which has the anode (+)
Focusing cup (-) surrounds coil and Tungsten filament
Current applied to Tungsten filament
Attains approx 2000 C
Units are Amps (A)

Electrons boil off of coil and form a negatively charged

electron cloudThermionic emission

Cathode Assembly
Cathode Assembly
Dual Focal Spot
Focusing cup and Filaments
Unit becomes electronegative
Electrons go towards anode--divergence is limited by the
focusing cup

Without focusing cupdivergent cloud of electrons

With focusing cupelectrons go towards tungsten
target

Cathode Assembly
Filament Circuit
Current flow is high4A
Voltage across filament is 10V
Power dissipated40W (P=VI)
High resistance in filament causes the temperature to
riseThermionic emission of electrons
Filament Circuit Requires step-down transformer

X-ray tube Current

Electrons emitted from filament forms a negative cloudAKA the
Space charge
The Space Charge prevents further electron emission

Electrons are attracted to anode when the increase in potential is

applied to the anodethis is how you produce X-rays
Tube current is measured in Milliamps (mA)the flow of electrons
across the vaccum gap from filament to anode completes the
circuit
Increase in attraction=Increase in X-rays produced
If force of attraction is large, no cloud exist and cant form an X-ray
this is around 40 kVp or greater
If voltage difference between cathode and anode is greater than 40
kVp, the space charge dissipates, and there is no X-ray formed

Space Charge Effect

Space Charge Effect
The space charge is an electron cloudand it is
electronegative
Via electrostatic repulsion, the space charge makes it
difficult for subsequent electrons to be emitted from
the cathode filament
Residual space charge acts to limit the number of
electrons available
This limits current flow in the x-ray tube

X-Ray Tube Output and

Current
X-ray tube output and current
Tube output is proportional to Tube Current
At Low kVp, the tube current is Space Charge LimitedkVp
is controlled
After 40 kVP, the prime determinant of X-ray production is
filament heating

At saturation voltage, all electrons are pulled away from the

filament, and tube current is maximized
Saturation Voltage= 40 kVp
Tube current is now largely controlled by Filament Heating
More electrons=more x-rays

X-Ray Tube Output and

Current
Tube Output and Current
Once saturation voltage has been attained, current is
determined by the number of electrons available by
filament heating
Emission or temperature limited

kVp affects the tube current for a given filament current

Space charge effect
At low peak voltages (less than 40 kVP), the potential
difference is insuffient to cause electons to be pulled away
from filamentthus a residual space charge remains

X-Ray Tube and Anode

The Copper Anode Contains the Tungsten Target
Focal spot= Target area bombarded by electrons
Embedded target material= Tungsten
High melting point
High atomic number is more efficient in X-ray production
(Z=74)

Tube Circuit= Low current, High Voltage

Filament Circuit=Low voltage, High Current
Target=embedded Anode
The thing that produces X-rays
Is the Focal Spot

Anode Designs
2 Basic Anode Designs
Stationary Anode
Has an angled face

Rotating Anode
Has a motor attached to the anode
Goes up to high speed before taking an X-ray
Increased surface area is used to dissipate heatmore
efficient
Anode is angled to decrease focal spot size
Line-focus principal
Smaller focal spotsharper images **sharper x-ray beams**
Shallow anglessharper images

Anode Designs
Effective focal spot
This is what the patient experiences
The area/shape of the beam projected onto the patient
and image receptor
By angling anode target, the effective focal spot is
much smaller than the actual focal spot
This is what comes out of the anode towards the patient
Larger anode angle=larger effective focal spot

Anode Designs
Dual Focal SpotAnode
Produces a narrow beam (used for detail) and a wider
beam
Anode Heel absorbs more radiation
Heel Effectis the rate limiting factor in X-ray tube
designs
Non-uniform beam from center out to edges=Heel Effect
Decrease Anode angle (Narrow Focal Spot)= Increase Heel
Effect
From the center to the anode, the beam intensity falls off

Anode Designs
Heel Effect
X-ray beam intensity is NOT uniform
X-rays produced within the anode are attenuated as
they pass out of the anode
The effect is more pronounced with decreased (steep)
anode angles

Higher intensity on the cathode side

Thicker body parts should be positioned towards the
cathode, and thinner body part towards the anode
Any photons directed along the heel plane are less
intense

Anode Designs
Heel Effect
Beam fluence= # of photons per unit area
Because fluence is more uniform near the central ray, the
heel effect is not a concern when
SID (FFD) is increased
Collimation decreases field size for small anatomic areas
(ex: foot)

Filtration
Filtration
Is required by law for patient safety
Filters out long wavelength and lower energysoft
radiation
This hardens the beam

Is measured in mm/s of actual or equivalent aluminum

thickness
There is Inherent Filtration and Added filtration
Total Filtration=Added + Inherent

We want to filter the low energy photons before they hit

the patient
Increase Aluminum Filtration= Decrease X-ray exposure to
patient

Filtration
2 Types of Filtration
Inherent Filtrationtotal filtering equivalent inherent
in any X-ray tube head
0.9-1.0 mm Al equivalent

Added FiltrationRequired by law!

Measured in actual or equivalent Aluminum Thickness
50-70 kVp range requires 1.5mm aluminum filtration (0.5
added)
Total filtration= 2.5mm Al

Filtration
Inherent Filtration
Equivalent aluminum filtration effect of inner X-ray tube head
materials
Results when X-rays pass through
Glass envelope
Insulating oil surrounding tube
Window (bakelite, etc)

Range 0.9- 1.0 mm Al equivalent

Components
Inherent Filtration
Thinned wall of glass envelope of X-ray tube insert
Insulating oil

Aluminum added filtration

Thin metal mirror of collimatoroffers additional filtration

Types of Filters
Added Filters
Attenuate via Photoelectric Reactions
Absorber placed in path of exiting X-rays
Aluminum is an excellent filter for low energy radiation

Compound filterscombine layered Al (Z=13) and

Copper (Z=29) to cut down filter thickness for higher
energy beams
Copper faces X-ray beam

Types of Filters
Compensating Filters
Compensate for part density variation
Changes the shape of the filter to allow a more unified
beam
Wedge filergreat for foot
Thick part is towards toes

Trough/bilateral wedge filterfor chest

The thin/central part is positioned over the mediastinum
Thicker lateral portions shadow aerated lung fields
towards toes
Step-wedge filter

Anode Interactions
Basic Anode Interactions
99% of interactions give useless infrared radiation (aka
Heat) via outer orbital, non-ionizing electron excitation
1% of all anode interactions produce useful X-rays
Three Basic Anode Interactions
Infrared Radiation99%
Bremsstrahlung Radiation0.9%
Characteristic Radiation0.1%

Bremsstrahlung
Radiation
Bremsstrahlung RadiationBraking Radiation
Electrons do not collide with Tungsten anode atoms or
their componenets
Diverted from original course due to opposing nuclear
forces
Each deflection=braking effect
Each deflection yields a photon of radiation
Greater Deflection=Greater Energy

Kinetic energy lost by electrons through the Braking

effect is converted to photons of equivalent energy

Bremsstrahlung
Radiation
Bremsstrahlung Radiation
Electrons enter with similar Kinetic Energy
Incoming electrons from the cathode may undergo
many anode reactions before coming to rest
Electrons can penetrate thru many anode layers before
giving up their total Kinetic energy
Exiting photons have many different energy values

Faster moving electrons produce higher energy,

shorter wavelength photons
Slower moving electrons produce lower energy,
longer wavelength photons

Bremsstrahlung
Radiation
Bremsstrahlung Radiation
Braking radiation is a wide distribution of energy in
the polyenergetic spectrum that is produced with
Bremsstrahlung Radiation

Characteristic Radiation
Characteristic Radiation
X-rays are characteristic of material used
Gives the spikes on the Bremsstrahlung curvearound 68 kVp
Discrete energy bands within the beam
Electrons bombarding target able to knock out inner orbital electrons
Incoming electron energy is greater than or equal to atomic shell
binding energy of emitted electron
Incoming Electron Energy Atominc Shell Binding Energy

(+) charged target atom returns to normal energy state by emitting Xray radiation characteristic of Tungsten
Tungsten is at a higher energy state
Electron drops from L to K: produce photon equal to binding shell
difference58 kEv
M to K drop down: 67 kEv

Electron Binding Energy

Atomic electrons held by electrostatic pull of positively
charged nucleus
The work required to remove the electron from the
atom=binding energy
Bound particles always have negative potential energy
To free an electron from an atom, energy must be raised to
0 or a positive value
The positively charged (ionized) tungsten anode atom
returns to its normal energy state by emitting radiation in
the X-ray wavelengths
Contribution of Characteristic Radiation to X-ray beam is
from 10%-28%--80-150 kVp

The X-Ray Beam

Units of X-ray beam intensity (Exposure)
Product of number of photons and their average photonic
energy
Intensity= Quantity x Quality
Unit of Measurement of Exposure= Roentgen (R)
Amt of radiation needed to liberate a charge of .000258 C per Kg of
air

Exposure
A source related term used to express intensity of an X-ray beam

Total charge liberated per unit air mass

Units of Exposure=
Coloumbs per KgSi system
Roentgens (R)non SI units: 2.58 x 10^-4 C

4 Factors affecting the

Quantity of X-Ray Beam
Photons
Milliamperage x Time (mAs)
Kilovoltage (kVp)
Distance
Filtration

Quantity of X-Ray Beam

Photons
Milliamperage
Quantity= area under the curve
Double mA=double the number of photons=doubles number
of emitted X-rays
Directly affects the number of photonsrecruits more or
less photons
recruits more cars
Milliamperage x time= mAs
Beam intensity and mAs are directly proportional
Directly increases the area of Bremsstrahlung curve
DOES NOT change energy distribution

Quantity of X-Ray Beam

Photons
Kilovoltage (kVp)
Beam intensity in direct proportions to kVp squared
Defines the QUANTITATIVE effect
Doubling kVp increases beam intensity x 4
This affects X-ray beam quality
Overall effect on film blackening is equal to the 4th power
kVp usually stays constant

15% Rule
To maintain constant film density, and increase of the kVp by 15% should
be accompanied by a 50% Decrease in mAs
If you increase kVP, you must decrease the mAs by 50%
Film density=degree of blackness produced by radiation
Optical density

High kVPs are safer than lower kVps

Quantity of X-Ray Beam

Photons
Distance
Inverse-Square Lawradiation intensity varies inversely
with the distance squared from the source
Results from X-ray beam divergence
Non-linear beam fall off with distance
Ex:
Doubling distance from X-ray source DECREASES the intensity
by a factor of 4
Increase distance= Decrease intensity
2x
3x1/9
4x1/16
Decrease Distance=Increase intensity

Quantity of X-Ray Beam

Photons
Filtration
Attenuates X-rays of all energies
Results in a higher percentage of low-energy X-rays
Decreased area beneath Bremsstrahlung curve, along
with a Right Shift
Increases effective beam energy
Beam Hardeningpreferential loss of lower energy
photons
Doubling filter thickness results in More energetic photons
via Right Shift

2 Factors Affecting
Quality of X-Ray Beam
Photons
Kilovoltage (kVp)
Filtration

Quality of X-Ray Beam

Photons
X-Ray beam Quality
Specifies as the thickness of an Aluminum absorber that
reduces the beam intensity by 50%--called the Half Value
Layer
Half-Value Layer
Lower HVL means that the beam has too many low energy
photons
At 70-80 kVp, the legal minimum X-Ray beam HVL is 2.5-3.0
mm Al
75 KvP is 2.8 HVL

HVL increases with increasing filtration

Increase in filtration increases beam quality

Quality and Quantity of

X-Ray Beam Photons
Summary
An Increase in
Kilovolt PeakIncreases Quantity and Quality
Milliampere-SecondIncreases the Quantity/Does not
change the quality
MilliamperageIncreases the Quantity/ Does not change
the Quality
Exposure TimeIncreases the Quantity/Does not change
the Quality
DistanceDecreases the Quantity/Does not change the
Quality
FiltrationDecrease the Quantity/ Increases the Quality

Quality and Quantity of

X-Ray Beam Photons
Increase in Quality with Increase in Factor
Kilovolt Peak
Milliampere-Seconds
Milliamperage
Exposure Time

Increase in Quality and Quantity with increase in factor

Kilovolt Peak

Decrease in Quantity with Increase in Factor

Distance

Decrease in Quantity/Increase in Quality with Increase in Factor

Filtration

Matter Interactions
Practical Considerations
Interactions with AirIonizes Airbasis for Roetegns
(R)
Interactions with Patient
Interaction with image receptors
Film
Screens

Matter Interactions
Interactions with Matter
PenetratePhotons pass through unaffected
No Deposition of Energy

AbsorbedPhotons transfer energy to absorbing medium

Energy deposited into bodyBAD

ScatteredPhotons change direction and possibly lose

energy
May or may not deposit energy

Interactions with Ionizing Radiation

Photons which are either absorbed or scattered ionize the
patients atoms

Matter Interactions
Basic Interactions with Matter
Coherent Scatter (5%)Insignificant
No energy deposiited
Not significant
Energy stays the same

Photoelectric AbsorptionSignificant
Compton ScatterSignificant
Incident X-Ray comes in, and a photon is absorbed
Electron Cloud is excited
Photon is emitted
Increase in Atomic Number= Increase in Probability of compton
Scatter
K-shell electron has to be equal to binding energy

Photoeletcric Reaction
Photoelectric Reaction
Interaction with matter where the incident X-ray is ABSORBEDnot Scattered
An electron escapes with Kinetic Energy equal to the difference between the
energy of incident X-ray and Electron Binding Energy
This yields weak characteristic Radiation in biologic systems
There is a vacancy in the K or L orbital that must be filled
One of the electrons from the outer orbital drops to the void
As the electron drops to the void, it may shed its excess energy as a secondary
photon

3 Products of the Photoelectric Effect

Photoelectron
Characteristic Radiationweak and characteristic of atoms of body
Positive Ionatom is ionized

Higher Atomic Numbers are more likely to undergo the photoelectric effect
Not that Safewant to minimize these reactions for the patient

Photoelectric Effect
Probabilities
The incident photon must have sufficient energy to overcome the
Binding Energy of the electron
Photoelectric Reaction most likely occurs when the photon energy
and the Electron Binding Energy are nearly the same
The Photoelectric effect is more likely the tighter the electron is
bound in orbit
Increase in atomic number= Increase in electron binding=Increase in
Photoelectric Effect
Increase in kVp= Decrease in photoelectric interactions to the third
power
Photoelectric effect allows better contrastDecrease kVp
Basis for Mammography
Great for Viewing the Toes in Podiatry

Compton Scatter
Compton effect
Greatest risk to the X-ray operator
The photon interacts with an outer orbital electron, imparting some of its
energy to the electron ejecting it from orbitionizes patients atoms
The ejected electron leaves the atom with an energy equal to the excess
imparted by the photon
The photon continues on an altered path
Angle of deflection determines the energy of the Compton Photon (scattered
photon)
Is scattered with less energy and longer wavelength than before the collision
Energy is Deposited--Can leave patients body and hit the operator
If it hits the film, it darkens the film in a random patternnot ideal

Thicker body parts= more scattered radiation= Increase in kVP

Increase in KvP= Decrease in Photoelectric Effect
Increase in KvP= Increases Compton Scatter80 kVp

Compton Scatter
Increase in KvP= Decrease in Photoelectric Effect
Increase in KvP= Increases Compton Scatter80 kVp
Thicker body parts scatter more radiation= Higher
KvP= Increased Scattered Radiation

Attenuation
4 Factors that Affect Attenuation:
Attenuation= Lessen in Intensity

KilovoltageInverse Square Law

Density
Atomic Number (Z)
Increase in Atomic Number=Increase in Attenuating
Power

Electrons per Gram of Tissue

Attenuation
Attenuation--s the gradual loss in intensity of any
kind of flux through a medium
Attenuation is Exponential
Monoenergetic Attenuationneed 3-4 half value
layers to get to 1000 photons
Every centimeter is a Half-Value Layer

Polyenergetic AttenuationHalf value layer increases

to get to 62.5
Functionally Monoenergetic Attenuation after 3-4 Half
Value Layers (Required)

Units of Radiation
Deposition and Safety
Radiation Detection and Measurement
Absorbed Dose (D)Measures the amount of
radiation energy (E) absorbed per unit mass (M) of the
absorbing medium
Absorbed Dose
D=E/M Dose=Radiation Energy/Mass
Units
Gray (Gy)SI system
Radsnon SI units

Absorbed dose is not source related

Units of Radiation
Deposition and Safety
Absorbed Dose
1 Gray= 1J of energy/kg
1 Rad=100 ergs of energy deposited/gram
1 Gray=100 rads
1 Rad= 10 mGy

Linear Transfer Energy

Linear Transfer Energy (LET)
Energy absorbed by the medium per unit length of
travel (keV per micrometer)
LET is proportional to Particle Charge squared
LET is inversely related to particle Kinetic Energy
Photons, electrons, gamma, and X-rays= Low LET
Neutrons, protons, and alpha particles= High LET

High LET=increase in biological damage

Neutrons are used in cancer therapy

Dose Equivalent
Dose Equivalent (H)
Attempts to quantify biologic damage from deposition of
radiation in the tissues
Dose Equivalent=absorbed dose x quality factor
H=D x QF
X-Rays, Gamma Rays, Electrons, Beta particles have a Quality
Factor= 1.0
Neutrons and Protons= 5.0
Alpha Particles=10.0

Quality factor depends on the LET value

1 rad= 1 rem in diagnostic Radiology
Quality factor may be as high as 20 for alpha particles and
heavy nuclei

Dose Equivalent
Dose Equivalent
Units
Sievert (Sv)SI system
Rem (radiation equivalent man)non SI
1 Sv= 100 Rem
1 Rem= 10 mSV

F-Factor Conversion
F-Factor converts exposure (X) and absorbed dose
(D)
Roentgen to Rad conversion factor
D= f x X
At diagnostic X-ray energies, f-Factor for soft tissues is
close to 1.0
f-Factor for bone is 4 at Low kvP
F-factor for bone is 1 at High kVp

Interactions With Film

A Latent image is formed
Heavily irradiated areas turn black
Ionic Ag +1 is reduced to metallic Ag 0
Image must then be developed

Complete attenuation of X-rays leaves the film clear

No radiation passes through

Partial attenuation/Transmission= Film is Gray

Some radiation passes through and some doesnt

Interactions With Film

Emulsion contains Crystalline Silver-Halide Grain
Bromine and Iodine are halides
10^9 grains/cm3

Can be sensitized to radiation or light to hold a latent image

Latent image must then be developed

Atomic arrangement inside hexagonal film crystal is cubic

Sensitivity Speck is AgS surface defect
Non-rigid crystal with negative surface charge
Atoms and electrons may migrate

Absorbed photons liberate halide electrons within the grain

Photon Interactions
within Silver-Halide
Crystal
Photoelectrons and Compton Electrons are produced
that migrate throughout the crystaldislodging
other electrons
Some are trapped by the Ag+ sensitivity speck
Turns silver black when bromine interacts with Ag
Sensitivity speck ultimately becomes electronegative
Electrons are attracted towards the sensitivity speck
turns sensitivity speck black

Photon Interactions within

Silver-Halide Crystal
In each crystal, less than 10 silver atoms are deposited at
the sensitivity speckwhich is the latent image center
They are not apparent microscopically, and are ultimately
developed into black grains
Crystal that have not been irridated will remain crystalline
and inactive

Development process converts silver ions on sensitivity

speck to grains
Developer makes electrons available to silver on the film
randomlyturns black

End Exam 1 Material