WIS5 Imperfections 2006

CSWIP 3.
1 Welding Inspection
Welding & Materials

Imperfections
TWI Training & Examination
Services
Course Reference WIS 5
Course notes section reference 3, 6 & 16
World Centre for Materials Joining Technology
Copyright 2006, TWI Ltd
Welding Imperfections
All welds have imperfections
Imperfections are classed as defects when they are of a

type, or size, not allowed by the Acceptance Standard
A defect is an unacceptable imperfection
A weld imperfection may be allowed by one Acceptance

Standard but be classed as a defect by another Standard
and require removal/rectification
Standards for Welding Imperfections
BS EN ISO 6520-1(1998) Welding and allied processes
Classification of geometric
imperfections in metallic materials Part 1: Fusion welding
Imperfections are classified into 6 groups, namely:
1 Cracks
2 Cavities
3 Solid inclusions
4 Lack of fusion and penetration
5 Imperfect shape and dimensions
6 Miscellaneous imperfections
Standards for Welding Imperfections
EN ISO 5817 (2003) Welding - Fusion-welded joints in steel,
nickel, titanium and their alloys (beam
welding excluded) - Quality levels for
imperfections
This main imperfections given in EN ISO 6520-1 are listed in
EN ISO 5817 with acceptance criteria at 3 levels, namely
Level B (highest)
Level C (intermediate)
Level D (general)
This Standard is directly applicable to visual testing of welds
...(weld surfaces & macro examination)
Welding imperfections
classification
Cracks
Cracks
Cracks that may occur in welded materials are
caused generally by many factors and may be
classified by shape and position.
Classified by Shape
Longitudinal
Transverse
Chevron
Lamellar Tear
Classified by Position
HAZ
Centerline
Crater
Fusion zone
Parent metal
Note: Cracks are classed as Planar Defects.
Cracks
Longitudinal parent metal
Transverse weld metal
Longitudinal weld metal
Lamellar tearing
Cracks
Transverse crack
Longitudinal crack
Cracks
Main Crack Types
Solidification Cracks
Hydrogen Induced Cracks
Lamellar Tearing
Reheat cracks
Cracks
Solidification Cracking
Occurs during weld solidification process
Steels with high sulphur impurities content (low ductility at
elevated temperature)
Requires high tensile stress
Occur longitudinally down centre of weld
Cracks
Hydrogen Induced Cold Cracking
Requires susceptible hard grain structure, stress, low
temperature and hydrogen
Hydrogen enters weld via welding arc mainly as result of

contaminated electrode or preparation
Hydrogen diffuses out into parent metal on cooling
Cracking developing most likely in HAZ
Cracks
Lamellar Tearing
Step like appearance
Occurs in parent material or HAZ
Only in rolled direction of the parent material
Associated with restrained joints subjected to through
thickness stresses on corners, tees and fillets
Requires high sulphur or non-metallic inclusions
Cracks
Re-Heat Cracking
Occurs mainly in HAZ of low alloy steels during post weld
heat treatment or service at elevated temperatures
Occurs in areas of high stress and existing defects

Prevented by toe grinding, elimination of poor profile
material selection and controlled post weld heat treatment
Welding Imperfections Classification
Cavities
Gas Cavities
Gas pore
Cluster porosity
Causes:
Loss of gas shield
Damp electrodes
Contamination
Blow hole
Herringbone porosity
Arc length too large

Damaged electrode flux
Moisture on parent material
Welding current too low
Root piping
Gas pore <1.5mm

Blow hole.>1.6mm
Gas Cavities
Porosity
Root piping
Gas Cavities
Cluster porosity
Herringbone porosity
Crater Pipe
Weld crater
Crater pipe
Crater Pipe
Crater pipe is a shrinkage defect and not a gas defect, it has
the appearance of a gas pore in the weld crater
Crater cracks
(Star cracks)
Causes:
Too fast a cooling
rate
Deoxidization
reactions and liquid
to solid volume
change
Crater pipe
Contamination
Solid Inclusions
Solid Inclusions
Slag inclusions are defined as a non-metallic inclusion caused
by some welding process
Causes:
Slag originates from
welding flux
Slag inclusions
Lack of sidewall
fusion with
associated slag
MAG and TIG welding

process produce silica
inclusions
Slag is caused by
inadequate cleaning
Parallel slag lines
Lack of interun
fusion + slag
Other inclusions include

tungsten and copper
inclusions from the TIG
and MAG welding process
Solid Inclusions
Interpass slag inclusions
Elongated slag lines
Lack of Fusion
Typical Causes of Lack of Fusion:
welding current too low
bevel angle too steep

root face too large (single-sided weld)
root gap too small (single-sided weld)
incorrect electrode angle

linear misalignment
welding speed too high
welding process related particularly dip-transfer GMAW

flooding the joint with too much weld metal (blocking Out)
Lack of Fusion
Causes:
Poor welder skill
Incomplete filled groove +

Lack of sidewall fusion
Incorrect electrode
manipulation
Arc blow
1
2
1. Lack of sidewall fusion
2. Lack of inter-run fusion
Incorrect welding
current/voltage
Incorrect travel speed
Incorrect inter-run cleaning
Lack of Fusion
Lack of sidewall fusion + incomplete filled groove
Overlap
Overlap
An imperfection at the toe or root of a weld caused by metal
flowing on to the surface of the parent metal without fusing to it
Causes:
Contamination
Slow travel speed

Incorrect welding
technique
Current too low
Overlap
Toe Overlap
Toe Overlap
Weld Root Imperfections

Causes:
Low Amps/volts
Large Root face
Incomplete root fusion
Small Root Gap

Fast Travel Speed
Incorrect Electrode
Angle
Contamination
Incomplete root penetration
Arc blow
Lack of root penetration
Lack of root fusion
Lack of Root Fusion
Lack of Root Penetration

A shallow groove caused by contraction in the weld metal
along each side of the penetration bead
Causes:
Insufficient weld metal
deposited in the root pass
Too fast a cooling rate
during the application of
the root bead pass
Shrinkage groove
Poor welding technique

A shallow groove, which may occur in the root of a butt weld
Causes:
Excessive back purge pressure
during TIG welding
Excessive root bead grinding
before the application of the
second pass
Concave Root
welding current too high for 2nd

pass overhead welding
root gap too large - excessive

weaving
Concave Root

Root penetration bead in excess in accordance with the
relevant specification being used
Causes:
Root faces too small
Root gap too large
Excessive amps/volts
Excessive root penetration
Slow travel speed
Excessive root
penetration
Concave root
Excess root penetration

A localized collapse of the weld pool due to excessive
penetration resulting in a hole in the root run
Causes:
High Amps/volts
Small Root face

Large Root Gap
Slow Travel Speed
Burn through
Burn Through
Oxidized Root (Root Coking)

Causes:
Loss or insufficient back

purging gas
Most commonly occurs
when welding stainless

steels
Purging gases include
argon, helium and

occasionally nitrogen
Imperfect Shape and Dimensions
Surface and Profile
Incomplete filled groove

Poor cap profiles and
excessive cap reinforcements
may lead to stress
concentration points at the
weld toes and will also
contribute to overall poor toe
blend
Poor cap profile
Excessive cap height
Surface and Profile
Excess cap reinforcement
Incomplete filled groove
Surface and Profile
Poor Cap Profile & Poor Toe Blend
Surface and Profile

Poor
Stop / Starts
Cap and Root Undercut

An irregular groove at the toe of a weld run in the parent metal
Causes:
Excessive amps/volts
Excessive travel speed
Incorrect electrode angle
Excessive weaving
Incorrect welding
technique
Electrode too large
Arc length too high
Cap Undercut
Intermittent Cap Undercut

Undercut
Root undercut
Cap undercut
Miscellaneous Imperfections
Arc strike or stray arc:
accidental striking of an arc on to base material
loss of welding cable insulation
poor connection of current return cable
Spatter:
excessive current or voltage
Grinding mark / mechanical damage:
Torn surface
Causes:
Excessive current
Damp electrodes
Contamination
Incorrect wire feed speed
when welding with the
MAG welding process
Arc blow
Spatter
Causes:
Accidental striking of the
arc onto the parent
material
Faulty electrode holder
Poor cable insulation
Poor return lead
clamping
Arc strike
Mechanical Damage
Mechanical Damage
Mechanical damage can be defined as any surface material
damage cause during the manufacturing process.
Grinding
Hammering
Chiselling
Chipping
Breaking off welded attachments
(torn surfaces)
Using needle guns to compress

weld capping runs
Mechanical Damage
Chipping Marks
Mechanical Damage/Grinding Mark
Set-Up Irregularities
Unequal Leg Lengths

A variation of leg lengths on a fillet weld
Note: Unequal leg lengths on a fillet weld may be specified as

part of the design, in which case it will not be
considered as a defect.
Linear misalignment is
measured from the lowest
plate to the highest point.
Plate/pipe Linear Misalignment
(Hi-Lo)
Angular misalignment is
measured in degrees
Angular Misalignment
Linear Misalignment
Linear Misalignment
Any Questions
Material Inspection
Parent Material Imperfections
Material Inspection
All materials arriving on site should be inspected for:
Size / dimensions
Condition
Type / specification
In addition other elements may need to be considered

depending on the materials form or shape
Pipe Inspection
Condition
(Corrosion, Damage, Wall thickness Ovality, Laminations & Seam)
Specification
Welded
seam
LP5
Size
Other checks may need to be made such as: distortion

tolerance, number of plates and storage*
Plate Inspection
Condition
(Corrosion, Mechanical damage, Laps, Bands &
Laminations)
Specification
5L
Size
Other checks may need to be made such as: distortion

tolerance, number of plates and storage*
Rolling Imperfections
Direction of rolling
Cold Laps*
Laminations
Segregation
Parent Material Imperfections

Mechanical damage
Lap
Lamination
Segregation line
Laminations are caused in the parent plate by the steel making
process, originating from ingot casting defects.
Segregation bands occur in the centre of the plate and are low
melting point impurities such as sulphur and phosphorous.
Laps are caused during rolling when overlapping metal does not
fuse to the base material.
Lapping
Lapping
Lapping
Lamination
Laminations
Plate Lamination
Material imperfections
Any Questions
Elements
Iron
Fe
Carbon
is for Strength
Manganese
Mn
is for Toughness
Silicon
Si
< 0.3% Deoxidiser
Aluminium
Al
Grain refiner, <0.008% Deoxidiser +

Toughness
Chromium
Cr
Corrosion resistance
Molybdenum
Mo
1% is for Creep resistance
Elements
Vanadium
Strength
Nickel
Ni
Low temperature applications
Copper Cu
Used for weathering steels (Corten)
Sulphur S
Residual element (can cause hot

shortness)
Phosphorous
Residual element
Titanium
Ti
Grain refiner, Used a a micro alloying

element (S&T)
Niobium
Nb
Grain refiner, Used a a micro alloying

element (S&T)
(S&T) = Strength & Toughness
Stainless Steel

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CSWIP 3.

Welding & Materials

Copyright 2006, TWI Ltd

Imperfections are classed as defects when they are of a

A defect is an unacceptable imperfection

A weld imperfection may be allowed by one Acceptance

World Centre for Materials Joining Technology

Copyright 2006, TWI Ltd

World Centre for Materials Joining Technology

Copyright 2006, TWI Ltd

World Centre for Materials Joining Technology

Copyright 2006, TWI Ltd

World Centre for Materials Joining Technology

Copyright 2006, TWI Ltd

Note: Cracks are classed as Planar Defects.

World Centre for Materials Joining Technology

Copyright 2006, TWI Ltd

Longitudinal parent metal

Transverse weld metal

Longitudinal weld metal

World Centre for Materials Joining Technology

Copyright 2006, TWI Ltd

World Centre for Materials Joining Technology

Copyright 2006, TWI Ltd

World Centre for Materials Joining Technology

Copyright 2006, TWI Ltd

World Centre for Materials Joining Technology

Copyright 2006, TWI Ltd

Hydrogen enters weld via welding arc mainly as result of

World Centre for Materials Joining Technology

Copyright 2006, TWI Ltd

Requires high sulphur or non-metallic inclusions

World Centre for Materials Joining Technology

Copyright 2006, TWI Ltd

Occurs in areas of high stress and existing defects

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Copyright 2006, TWI Ltd

Welding Imperfections Classification

World Centre for Materials Joining Technology

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Arc length too large

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Gas pore <1.5mm

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World Centre for Materials Joining Technology

Copyright 2006, TWI Ltd

World Centre for Materials Joining Technology

Copyright 2006, TWI Ltd

World Centre for Materials Joining Technology

Copyright 2006, TWI Ltd

World Centre for Materials Joining Technology

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Welding Imperfections Classification

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MAG and TIG welding

Parallel slag lines

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Other inclusions include

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Interpass slag inclusions

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