SFRA - Theory and Method - Standards - 120911

Sweep Frequency Response Analysis
Advanced Transformer Testing 2012
Transformer Diagnostics
Transformer Diagnostics is about acquiring accurate
measurement data and other information in order to make
the correct decision about what to do with the actual unit
SFRA
TTR
WRM
FDS
SFRA testing basics

Off-line test
The transformer is seen as a complex
impedance circuit
[Open] (magnetization impedance)
and [Short] (short-circuit impedance)
responses are measured over a wide
frequency range and the results are
presented as magnitude response
(transfer function) in dB
Changes in the impedance/transfer
function can be detected and
compared over time, between test
objects or within test objects
The method is unique in its ability to
detect a variety of winding faults, core
issues and other electromechanical
faults in one test
Rponse et analyse dun balayage en

SFRA mathematics basics
frquence
Generator test voltage
Measured voltage
Phase,
Gain, dB
V
G(dB) 20 log10 out
Vin

Standards Summary
SFRA Standards and Recommendations

Frequency Response Analysis on Winding Deformation of Power
Transformers, DL/T 911-2004, The Electric Power Industry Standard of
Peoples Republic of China
Mechanical-Condition Assessment of Transformer Windings Using
Frequency Response Analysis (FRA), CIGRE report 342, 2008
IEC 60076-18, Power transformers Part 18: Measurement of
frequency response, 2012
IEEE PC57.149, Guide for the Application and Interpretation of
Frequency Response Analysis for Oil Immersed Transformers, 2012
Internal standards by transformer manufacturers, e.g. ABB FRA
Standard v.5
SFRA - Theory and method
FRA definitions
Frequency response
The amplitude ratio and phase difference between voltages measured at
two terminals of the test object over a range of frequencies when one of the
terminals is excited by a voltage source. The frequency response
measurement result is a series of amplitude ratios and phase differences at
specific frequencies over a range of frequency.
As Vout/Vin varies over a wide range, it is expressed in decibels (dB). The
relative voltage response in dB is calculated as 20 x log10(Vout/Vin)
Frequency response analysis (FRA)

The technique used to detect damage by the use of frequency response
measurements.
FRA history
1960: Low Voltage Impulse Method. First proposed by W. Lech & L. Tyminski
in Poland for detecting transformer winding deformation.
1966: Results Published; Detecting Transformer Winding Damage - The
Low Voltage Impulse Method, Lech & Tyminsk, The Electric Review, UK
1978: Transformer Diagnostic Testing by Frequency Response Analysis,
E.P. Dick & C.C. Erven, Ontario Hydro, IEEE Transactions of Power Delivery
1980 - 1990s : Proving trials by utilities and OEMs, the technology cascades
internationally via CIGRE, and many other conferences and technical
meetings
2004: First SFRA standard, Frequency Response Analysis on Winding
Deformation of Power Transformers, DL/T 911-2004, is published by The
Electric Power Industry Standard of Peoples Republic of China
2008: CIGRE report 342, Mechanical-Condition Assessment of Transformer
Windings Using Frequency Response Analysis (FRA) is published
2012: IEC60076-18 and IEEE PC57.149 are released
Transformer mechanics basics

A transformer is designed to handle certain (high!) mechanical
forces.
Design limits can be exceeded due to
Excessive mechanical impact
Transportation
Earthquakes
Over currents caused by

Through faults
Tap-changer faults
Faulty synchronization
Mechanical strength weakens as the transformer ages

Less capability to handle high stress/forces
Increased risk of mechanical problems
Increased risk for insulation problems
Why assess the mechanical condition?
To detect core displacement and winding

deformation due to e.g.
Large electromagnetic forces from fault current

Transformer transportation and relocation
If these faults are not detected they may develop

into dielectric or thermal faults which normally
results in the loss of the transformer
Periodic testing is essential!
Detecting Faults with SFRA

Winding faults
Deformation
Displacement
Shorts
Core related faults

Movements
Grounding
Screens
Mechanical faults/changes
Clamping structures
Connections
And more...
SFRA measurement circuitry
SFRA How does it work (1)
A large number of low voltage signals with varying

frequencies are applied to the transformer
The input and output signals are measured in amplitude
and phase
The ratio of the two signals gives the frequency
response or transfer function of the transformer
From the (complex) transfer function you can derive a
number of entities as function of frequency e.g.
Magnitude
Phase
Impedance/admittance
Correlation
SFRA How does it work (2)
The RLC network has different impedance at different

frequencies.
The transfer function for all frequencies is the measure
of the effective impedance of the RLC network.
A geometrical deformation, changes the RLC network,
which in turn changes the impedance/transfer function
at different frequencies.
These changes gives an indication of damage within a
transformer.
SFRA results Frequency regions

Transformer issues can be
detected in different frequency
ranges
Low frequencies
Core problems
Shorted/open windings
Bad connections/increased
resistance
Short-circuit impedance
changes
Winding
and tap
leads
Winding
interaction and
deformation
Medium frequencies
Winding deformations
Winding displacement
Core + windings
High frequencies
Movement of winding and tap
leads
Frequency regions by IEC and IEEE

10
0
-10
Magnitude, dB
-20
Winding
structure
influence
Core
influence
-30
-40
-50
-60
-70
-80
-90
1
10
A phase
B phase
C phase
2
10
Earthing
leads
influence
Interaction
between
windings
3
10
10
Frequency, Hz
10
10
10
SFRA measurement frequency ranges

IEC60076-18
Category
Low frequency limit High frequency limit
Power transformers, Uw < 72.5 kV
< 20 Hz
> 2 MHz
Power transformers, Uw > 72.5 kV
< 20 Hz
> 1 MHz
Comparing older measurements

and/or methods/practices not
following IEC method 1 (CIGRE 342)
standard for signal shield grounding
< 20 Hz
500 kHz
SFRA measurement frequency ranges

Examples
Standard
Low frequency limit High frequency limit
Eskom standard
20 Hz
2 MHz
ABB standard
10 Hz
2 MHz
Japan (impedance)
100 Hz
1 MHz
DL/T-911 2004
1 kHz
1 MHz
Typical instrument default values are 20 Hz 2 MHz
Comparative tests
Transformer A
Design based
Time based
Transformer A
Transformer B
Type based
Comparisons
Time Based (Tests performed on the same transformer over time)
The most reliable test
Deviations between curves are easy to detect
Type Based (Tests performed on transformer of same design)

Requires knowledge about test object/versions
Small deviations are not necessarily indicating a problem
Design based (Tests performed on winding legs and bushings of

identical design)
Requires knowledge about test object/versions

Small deviations are not necessarily indicating a problem
SFRA Measurement philosophy

New measurement = Reference measurement
Back in Service
New measurement Reference measurement
Further Diagnostics Required

Reference measurements
When transformer is new
Capture reference data at commissioning of
new transformers
When transformer is in known good

condition
Capture reference data at a scheduled routine
test (no issues found)
Save for future reference

Start Your Reference Measurements ASAP!
SFRA measurements When?

Manufacturing tests
Quality check during manufacturing
Proofing the transformer after short-circuit test
Before shipping
Installation/commissioning
Relocation
After a significant through-fault event
Part of routine diagnostic test
Catastrophic events
Earth quakes
Hurricanes/tornadoes
Trigger based test/transformer alarms

Buchholz
DGA
High temperature
Before-after maintenance
Transformer fault detection
Detection of Winding Movement (1)
Prior to SFRA the mechanical integrity of the

transformer was assessed with the following standard
methods:
Winding capacitance
Excitation current
Leakage reactance measurements
Each of these methods have drawbacks
26
Detection of Winding Movement (2)
Winding Capacitance
Excitation Current
Successful only if reference data is available

Limited sensitivity for some failure modes
Excitation current is an excellent means of detecting turn-to-turn
failure as a result of winding movement
If a turn-to-turn failure is absent, winding movements can remain
undetected.
Leakage Reactance
Per phase leakage reactance measurements generally shows

no or little correlation between the phases and nameplate
Discrepancies from nameplate value of 0,5 % to 3 % can be a
reason for concern
The range of defect detection is to large for an accurate
assessment
27
Comparing diagnostic techniques (CIGRE)

Diagnostic technique
Advantages
Magnetizing (exciting) current
Requires relatively simple equipment.

Can detect core damage
Disadvantages
Not sensitive to winding deformation.

Measurement strongly affected by core
residual magnetism
Impedance (leakage reactance)
Traditional method currently specified in Very small changes can be significant.
short-circuits test standards.
Limited sensitivity for some failure modes
Reference (nameplate) values are
(best for radial deformation)
available
Frequency Response of Stray Losses Can be more sensitive than impedance
Not a standard use in the industry
(FRSL)
measurement.
Almost unique to detect short circuits
between parallel strands
Winding capacitance
Can be more sensitive than impedance Limited sensitivity for some failure modes
measurements.
(best for radial deformation).
Standard equipment available
Relevant capacitance may not be
measurable (e.g. Between
series/common/tap windings for auto
transformers)
Low Voltage Impulse (LVI) (time domain)
Recognized as very sensitive
Specialist equipment required.
Difficult to achieve repeatability.
Difficult to interpret
Better repeatability than LVI with the
Standardization of techniques required.
Frequency Response Analysis
same sensitivity.
Guide to interpretation required
Easier to interpret than LVI (frequency
instead of time domain).
Increasing number of users
Comparing SFRA and other traditional

transformer measurements
End-to-End [Open], (Open Circuit Self Admittance]
Example: 1U - 1N [open]
Excitation current as function of frequency
End-to-End [short], (Short Circuit Self Admittance)
Example: 1U 1N [short]
Leakage reactance/short-circuit impedance as function of frequency (compare
IEEE 62 measurements at 50/60 Hz)
FRSL, Frequency Response of Stray Losses (SFRA 20 600 Hz)
Input Impedance
Measurement of impedance to ground for a certain configuration (Japanese

standard, common in South America, common in China before DL/T 911)
Can be performed for grounded objects with the active impedance probe
Capacitive Inter-winding [Inter-Winding]
Capacitance as a function of frequency
Inductive Inter-winding [Transfer Admittance]
Turn-ratio measurement (voltage ratio) as a function of frequency

Possible to perform at various impedances with the active voltage probe
SFRA vs Excitaion current

Example; U1 - N1 [open]
Excitation current as function of
frequency
Please note that excitation current is
voltage dependent!
SFRA
At low voltages the inductance is low and

increasing with voltage
At high voltages the core gets saturated and
the inductance decreases
Non-linear phenomena...
SFRA vs short-circuit impedance/leakage reactance

Example; U1 N1 [short]
Short-circuit impedance/Leakage reactance as a function
of frequency (IEEE 50/60 Hz @ 200 V)
Leakage reactance is not voltage dependent. However, in certain
configurations the magnetizing impedance can influence the results
at lower test voltages
FRSL, Frequency Response of Stray Losses (SFRA 20

600 Hz @ ~200 V)
Frequency Response of Stray Losses (FRSL)

End-to-End (short-circuit), [Short
Circuit Self Admittance]
Impedance changes may be caused
by;
Inductance changes e.g winding
movement
Resistance change (DC) due to bad
contacts, soldering issues etc
Resistance change at higher
frequencies (Rstray) due to stray losses
caused by;
Winding deformation
Shorts between parallel strands
Ref: L. BOLDUC, et. Al DETECTION OF

TRANSFORMER WINDING DISPLACEMENT
BY THE FREQUENCY RESPONSE OF STRAY
LOSSES (FRSL), CIGRE session, 2000.
FRSL 160 MVA transformer with contact resistance problem
HV [short], Transformer G2-1
HV [short], Transformers G2-1 and 3
FRA Methods
Sweep Frequency Response
Impulse
Impulse FRA vs. SweepFRA

Impulse FRA
Impulse FRA
Injects a pulse signal and

measure response
Convert Time Domain to
Frequency Domain using Fast
Fourier Transform (FFT) algorithm
Low resolution in lower frequencies
SFRA
Injects a single frequency signal
Measures response at the same
frequency
No conversion
High resoultion at all frequencies
Comparing Impulse & SweepFRA

SFRA (Sweep frequency response analysis)
provides good detail data in all frequencies
Black = Imported Impulse measurement
(Time domain converted to Frequency Domain)
Red = SFRA Measurement
Deviations Low Frequency = Method

Deviation High Frequency = Cable practice
Zoom View of impulse vs. SFRA

Impulse instrument sample rate limts
frequency resolution to 2kHz.
SFRA Measurement Technique, part 1

- Measurement setups
SFRA test setup
FRAX measurement circuitry
Test types End-to-end (open)

Test signal is applied to one end of a winding and the
transmitted signal is measured at the other end
Magnetizing impedance of the transformer is the main
parameter characterizing the low-frequency response
(below first resonance) in this configuration
Commonly used because of its simplicity and the possibility
to examine each winding separately
End-to-end (open) - Example

Low frequencies
May vary between measurements pending magnetization
Typical dubbel-dip response
B-phase should be below A and C-phase (Y)
Test types End-to-end short-circuit

The test is similar to the end-to-end measurement, but with
a winding on the same phase being short-circuited
The influence of the core is removed below about 10-20
kHz because the low-frequency response is characterized
by the short-circuit impedance/leakage reactance instead of
the magnetizing inductance
Response at higher frequencies is similar to end-to-end
(open) measurements
End-to-end (short) - Example

Low frequencies
All phases should be very similar. > 0.25 dB difference may indicate leakage
reactance/winding resistance/connection/tap-changer problems
Test types Capacitive inter-winding (IW)

Test signal is applied to one end of a winding and
the response is measured at one end of another
winding on the same phase (not connected to the
first one)
The response using this configuration is dominated
at low frequencies by the inter-winding capacitance
Test types Inductive inter-winding (TA)

The signal is applied to a terminal on the HV side, and
the response is measured on the corresponding
terminal on the LV side, with the other end of both
windings being grounded
The low-frequency range of this test is determined by
the winding turns ratio
Inter-winding measurements - Example

IW (red) is capacitive at low frequencies
TA (black) reflects turn ratio at low frequencies (135 MVA, 160/16 Dd0)
Similar response at high frequencies
SFRA Measurement Technique, part 2

- How to achieve high quality results
Test results always comparisons
Core NOT grounded

Core grounded
Repeatability is of utmost importance!

Example of repeatability
105 MVA, Single phase Generator Step-up (GSU)
transformer
SFRA measurements with FRAX 101 before and
after a severe short-circuit in the generator
Two different test units
Tests performed by two different persons
Test performed at different dates
Before (2007-05-23) and after fault (2007-08-29)
LV winding
HV winding
105 MVA, Single phase GSU

Measurements before and after were virtually
identical
Very good correlation between reference and after
fault
Conclusion:
No indication of mechanical changes in the transformer
Transformer can safely be put back in service
Potential compromising factors

Measurement signal connection quality
Shield grounding practice
Instrument dynamic range/internal noise
floor
Understanding core property influence in
lower frequencies in open - circuit SFRA
measurements
Bad connection
Bad connection can affect the curve at higher frequencies
Good connection
After proper connections were made
FRAX C-Clamp ensuring connection quality

C-Clamp ensures good
contact quality
Penetrates non conductive
layers
Solid connection to round or
flat busbars/bushings
Provides strain relief for cable
Separate connector for single
or multible ground braids
Proper ground connection ensures

repeatability at high frequencies
Good grounding practice;

use shortest braid from cable
shield to bushing flange.
Poor grounding practice
Shield grounding influence
C. Homagk et al, Circuit design for reproducible on-site measurements of

transfer function on large power transformers using the SFRA method, ISH2007
FRAX cable set and grounding
Always the same ground-loop

inductance on a given bushing
Instrument performance
Transformers have high impedance/large
attenuation at first resonance
Internal instrument noise is most often the main
limiting source, not substation noise
Test your instruments noise floor by running a
sweep with open cables (Clamps not connected to
transformer)
Internal noise level Noise floor
Open/noise floor measurements

Red = Other brand
Green = FRAX 101
Example of internal noise problem
H1 H2 (open & short) measurements

Black = Other brand
Red = FRAX 101
Why you need at least -100 dB...
Westinghouse 40 MVA, Dyn1, 115/14 kV, HV [open]
Influence of core
Try to minimize the effect, however, some
differences are still to be expected and must be
accepted (magnetic viscosity).
Preferably:
perform SFRA measurements prior to winding
resistance measurements (or demagnetize the
core prior to SFRA measurements)
use same measurement voltage in all SFRA
measurements
Run winding resistance test after SFRA!
H1-H2 [open]
After winding resistance test
After
demagnetization
Core magnetization by Doble
Trace A shows the fingerprint response of the transformer and trace B

shows the response as a result of magnetized core (caused by WRM
measurements)
66
Magnetization status over time
Lachman et al, Frequency Response

Analysis of Transformers and Influence
of Magnetic Viscosity, Doble 2012
67
Effect of applied measurement voltage
H1-H0 [open]
0.1 V peak-to-peak
10V peak-to peak

Influence of applied
voltage is more
pronounced on LV
windings
Measurement voltage by Tettex
69
Measurement voltage effect in practice
2.8 V
Omicron
10 V
FRAX, Doble and others

70
FRAX101 has adjustable output voltage!
Omicron (2.8 V)
FRAX, 2.8 V

71
Influence of tap changers

The tap windings in a transformer add in one section at a time
- affecting the low frequency (magnetization impedance)
response and the mid-frequency (winding) response
Tap lead responses will be seen at higher frequencies than
the tap windings. They are less organized but are still
repeatable
Some tap-changers have a neutral position which is more
different than the difference between consecutive taps. Avoid
using the neutral position as reference measurement
Distribution transformer with 5 HV taps
Tap winding
Low frequency
effect
73
Tap changer measurements by Doble
Tap leads
Low frequency
effect
Tap winding
74
System integrity test
Field verification unit with known

frequency response is
recommended in CIGRE and
other standards to verify
instrument and cables before
starting the test
Summary
Measurement quality and repeatability
The basis of SFRA measurements is comparison and
repeatability/reproducibility is of utmost importance
To ensure high repeatability;
Select a high quality, high accuracy instrument with high dynamic
range and input/output impedance matched to the coaxial cables
(e.g. 50 Ohm)
Make sure to get good signal connection and connect the shields
of coaxial cables to flange of bushing using shortest braid
technique
Use the same applied voltage in all SFRA measurements
Be careful about WRM testing and other tests that can magnetize
the core. Perform after SFRA or demagnetize prior to SFRA
Make good documentation, e.g. make photographs of connections
and note tap settings
SFRA Analysis
Detecting Faults with SFRA

Winding faults
Deformation
Displacement
Shorts
Core related faults

Movements
Grounding
Screens
Mechanical faults/changes
Clamping structures
Connections
And more...
SFRA analysis tools

Visual/graphical analysis
Starting dB values
The expected shape of star and delta configurations
Comparison of fingerprints from;
The same transformer
A sister transformer
Symmetric phases
New/missing resonance frequencies
Correlation analysis
DL/T 911 2004 standard
Customer/transformer specific
Typical response from a healthy transformer

HV [short] identical
between phases
LV [open] as
expected for a Y tx
Very low deviation

between phases for
all tests no winding
defects
HV [open] as expected for
a Y tx
Double dip and mid
phase response lower
80
Transformer with serious issues...
Large deviations
between phases for
LV [open] at low
frequencies
indicates changes in
the magnetic
circuit/core defects
Large deviations
between phases at mid
and high frequencies
indicates winding faults
81
Transformer with winding shorted turn

Easiest fault to recognize with SFRA
Typically produced by a through current fault
Adjacent turns lose paper and weld together resulting in a
solid loop around the core
SFRA gives clear and unambiguous diagnosis of a
shorted turn
SFRA response for the shorted phase may be identified
without reference results since the variation at low
frequencies gives a clear fault signature
Shorted turn (IEEE)

Frequency
Range
20 Hz 10 kHz
5 kHz 100 kHz
Winding Turn-to-Turn Short Circuit

Assuming no other failure modes exist:
Open Circuit Tests:
The short circuit failure mode removes the effect of the cores reluctance from
the open circuit FRA results. The FRA open circuit trace assumes a similar
behavior as short circuit test. The affected winding will show the greatest
change. This failure mode will also affect the FRA responses from all other
windings, but not as much.
Short Circuit Tests:
The results will not compare well against previous data or amongst phases. The
affected winding is generally offset.
Open Circuit and Short Circuit Tests:
This range can shift or produce new resonance peaks and valleys. The changes
will be greater on the affect phase.
50 kHz 1 MHz

> 1 MHz

83
Transformer with shorted turn

10
100
1000
10000
100000
1000000
0
-10
Response (dBs)
-20
-30
-40
-50
-60
-70
-80
Frequency (Hz)
HV [open]; B phase (red) should have lower response compared to A and

C phase but has instead higher magnitude/lower impedance
84
Shorted turn by Doble
Responses of the HV and LV winding of the same transformer

Significant difference in the white phase due to imbalance in the reluctance
on one of the core limbs (white phase) as a result of shorted turns
85
Shorted turn by IEEE

Large impedance decrease
at low frequencies in open
circuit test
Impedance decrease at low

frequencies in HV shortcircuit test (only if short is
on HV side)
86
Radial winding deformation Hoop buckling (IEEE)

Frequency Range
Radial Winding Deformation

Assuming, no other failure modes exist:
20 Hz 10 kHz
Open Circuit Tests:

This region (core region) is generally unaffected during radial winding deformation.
Results in an increase in impedance. The FRA trace for the affected phase
generally exhibits slight attenuation within the inductive roll-off portion.
5 kHz 100 kHz

The bulk winding range can shift or produce new resonance peaks and valleys
depending of the severity of the deformation. However, this change is minimal and
difficult identify. The changes will be greater on the affect winding, but it is still
possible to have the effects transferred to the opposing winding. The response in
the bulk region should be used as secondary evidence to support the analysis.
50 kHz 1 MHz

Radial winding deformation is most obvious in this range. It can shift or produce
new resonance peaks and valleys depending of the severity of the deformation.
The changes will be greater on the affect winding, but it is still possible to have the
effects transferred to the opposing winding.
> 1 MHz

This range is generally unaffected in this range. However, severe deformation can
extend into this range.
Radial winding deformation by IEEE...
Resonance changes at
mid- and high
frequencies in open
circuit test
Small but significant

impedance increase at
low frequencies in
short-circuit test
Axial winding deformation Telescoping (IEEE)

Frequency Range
Axial Winding Deformation

20 Hz 10 kHz
Open Circuit Tests:

This region (core region) is generally unaffected during axial winding deformation.
Results in a change in impedance. The FRA trace for the affected winding causes a
difference between phases or previous results in the inductive roll-off portion.
5 kHz 100 kHz

Axial winding deformation is most obvious in this range. The bulk winding range
can shift or produce new resonance peaks and valleys depending of the severity of
the deformation. The changes will be greater on the affect winding, but it is still
possible to have the effects transferred to the opposing winding.
Axial winding deformation can shift or produce new resonance peaks and valleys
depending of the severity of the deformation. The changes will be greater on the
affect winding, but it is still possible to have the effects transferred to the opposing
winding.
50 kHz 1 MHz
> 1 MHz

The response to axial winding deformation is unpredictable.
Axial winding deformation by IEEE...
Resonance changes at
mid- and high
frequencies in open
circuit test
Small but significant

iImpedance increase at
low frequencies in
short-circuit test
Core defects
Core defects failures cause changes to the cores
magnetic circuit
Burnt core laminations
Shorted core laminations
Multiple/unintentional core grounds
Lost core ground and joint dislocations.
Core defects (IEEE)

Frequency
Range
20 Hz 10 kHz
5 kHz 100 kHz
Core Defects
Open Circuit Tests:
These types of failures will affect the lower frequency regions generally below
10 kHz. Core defects often change the primary core resonance shape. Less
weight should be placed on shifting, because identifying core defects can
sometimes be masked by the effects of core residual magnetization. If the
open circuit core appears to be loaded, (looking closer to a short circuit
response), this could indicated a core defect.
This region is generally unaffected during bulk winding movement. All phases
should be similar.
This range can shift or produce new resonance peaks and valleys.
50 kHz 1 MHz

Generally this range remains unaffected. However, if the fault is due to a core
ground issue, changes to the CL capacitance can cause resonance shifts in
the upper portion of this range.
> 1 MHz

If the fault is due to a core ground issue, changes to the CL capacitance can
cause resonance shifts.
Core defects Example
Significant (and
unexpected)
differencies between
phases at low
frequencies in LV
[open] test
No differencies
between phases at high
frequencies No
winding defetcts...
Core defects by IEEE...
Significant changes in
the magnetic circuit at
first resonance in open
circuit test
SFRA analysis dB and Impedance
dB-scale
Magnitude = 20*log(Meas/Ref)
Phase = Phase (Meas/Ref)
Impedance scale (Admittance Y = 1/Z)
|Z| = |U/I| = 50*(Ref Meas)/Mea.
Phase = Phase (Z)
SFRA standard magnitude response in dB
Magnitude (dB) and Admittance (S)

Second resonance
decreased on LV...
Second resonance
looks normal on LV...
Magnitude (dB) and Impedance ()
Low resolution on LV
magnitude
High resolution with LV
impedance
Admittance (S) and Impedance ()
Magnitude response or Impedance/Admittance?

Magnitude response (dB)
Most established and standardized

Most pubished results are in dB
Common file format e.g. *.xfra supports magnitude
Impedance ()
More engineering, most power engineers are familiar with transformer

impedance in ohms
Improved resolution for low impedance circuits (< about 100 ) e.g. LV windings
on distribution transformers
Impedance representation makes it possible to discriminate between resistive
and inductive parts
Admittance (S)
Improved resolution for low impedance circuits (< about 100 ) e.g. LV windings
on distribution transformers
Same shape as Magnitude
FRAX
The Features And Benefits
101
FRAX 101 Frequency Response Analyzer
FRAX101 Frequency Response Analyzer

Power Input
11-16VDC,
internal battery
(FRAX 101)
USB Port
On all models
Bluetooth
On FRAX101
Rugged Extruded
Aluminum Case
Most feature rich and accurate

SFRA unit in the world!
Generator,
reference and
measure
connectots All
panel mounted
Active probe
connector on
FRAX101
SFRA test setup
Easy to connect
shortest braid cables
Optional Internal Battery

Over 8h effective run time
Industrial grade class 1

Bluetooth (100m)
USB for redundancy
Search Database Feature

Data files stored in XML format
Index function stores all relevant data in a small database
Search function can list and sort files in different locations
Import formats
Fast testing
Less points where it takes
time to test and where high
frequency resolution is not needed
More points where

higher frequency
resolution is useful
Traditional test
about 2 min
vs.
FRAX fast test
< 40 seconds
Decision support with correlation analysis
Unlimited analysis
Unlimited graph control
Lots of available graphs
Ability to create custom
calculation models using any
mathematic formula and the
measured data from all
channels
Turn on and off as needed
Compare real data with
calculated model data
FRAX150
As FRAX-101 except:
Internal PC/stand-alone
No internal battery option
No Bluetooth
FRAX99
As FRAX 101 except:
No internal battery option

No Bluetooth
Dynamic range > 115 dB
Fixed output voltage
9 m cable set
No active probes
FRAX product summary
Light weight
Rugged
Battery operated (FRAX101)
Wireless communication (FRAX101)
Accuracy & Dynamic Range/Noise floor
Cable Practice
Easy-to-use software
Export & Import of Data
Complies with all SFRA standards and recommendations
Only unit that is compatible with all other SFRA
instruments

Application Examples
Time Based Comparison - Example
1-phase generator transformer, 400 kV

SFRA measurements before and after
scheduled maintenance
Transformer supposed to be in good condition
and ready to be put in service
Time Based Comparison - Example
Obvious distorsion as by DL/T911-2004 standard (missing core ground)
Time Based Comparison After repair
Normal as by DL/T911-2004 standard (core grounding fixed)

Type Based Comparisons (twin-units)

Some parameters for identifying twin-units:
Manufacturer
Factory of production
Original customer/technical specifications
No refurbishments or repair
Same year of production or +/-1 year for large units
Re-order not later than 5 years after reference order
Unit is part of a series order (follow-up of ID numbers)
For multi-unit projects with new design: reference transformer should
preferably not be one of the first units produced
Type Based Comparison - Example
Three 159 MVA, 144 KV single-phase transformers

manufactured 1960 (shell-form)
Put out of service for maintenance/repair after DGA
indication of high temperatures
Identical units
SFRA testing and comparing the two transformers
came out OK indicating that there are no
electromechanical changes/problems in the
transformers
Short tests indicated high resistance in one unit
(confirmed by WRM)
Type Based Comparison 3x HV [open]
Type Based Comparison 3x LV [open]
Type Based Comparison 3x HV [short]
Design Based Comparisons

Power transformers are frequently designed in multi-limb
assembly. This kind of design can lead to symmetric
electrical circuits
Mechanical defects in transformer windings usually
generate non-symmetric displacements
Comparing FRA results of separately tested limbs can be
an appropriate method for mechanical condition
assessment
Pending transformer type and size, the frequency range
for design-based comparisons is typically limited to about
1 MHz
Design Based Comparison - Example
40 MVA, 114/15 kV, manufactured 2006

Taken out of service to be used as spare
No known faults
No reference FRA measurements from factory
SFRA testing, comparing symmetrical phases
came out OK
The results can be used as fingerprints for
future diagnostic tests
Designed Based Comparison HV [open]
Designed Based Comparison HV [short]
Designed Based Comparison LV [open]
Design Based Comparison

After Suspected Fault
Power transformer, 25MVA, 55/23kV,
manufactured 1985
By mistake, the transformer was energized
with grounded low voltage side
After this the transformer was energized again
resulting in tripped CB (Transformer protection
worked!)
Decision was taken to do diagnostic test

10
100
1000
10000
100000
0
-10
Response (dBs)
-20
-30
-40
-50
-60
-70
-80
Frequency (Hz)
HV-0, LV open
A and C phase OK, large deviation on B-phase (shorted turn?)
1000000

10
100
1000
10000
100000
1000000
Response (dBs)
-10
-20
-30
-40
-50
-60
Frequency (Hz)
HV-0 (LV shorted)

A and C phase OK, deviation on B-phase
And how did the mid-leg look like?

Core limb
Insulation cylinder
LV winding

frquence
SFRA for testing filter circuits
(Line traps)

Typical line trap circuit frquence
The filter circuit is an RLC network

Measurement principle frquence
Generator signal
Measurement signal
Attenuation, dB
Phase shift,
V
G (dB) 20 log10 out
Vin

frquence
225 kV line trap
225kV, 850A, 17mH

Verification of cut-off
frequency

No capacitors connectedfrquence
-10
-20
Magnitude (dB)
-30
-40
-50
-60
-70
-80
100
1k
10 k
100 k
1M
Frequency (Hz)
[A-a1 [open]]

One capacitor connected
frquence
-5
-10
Magnitude (dB)
-15
-20
-25
-30
-35
-40
100
1k
10 k
100 k
1M
Frequency (Hz)
[C-c1 [open] (2)]

Two capacitors connected
frquence
0
Magnitude (dB)
-10
-20
-30
-40
-50
100
1k
10 k
100 k
1M
Frequency (Hz)
[C-c1 [open] (4)]

Standards
SFRA Standards and Recommendations

Frequency Response Analysis on Winding Deformation of Power
Transformers, DL/T 911-2004, The Electric Power Industry Standard of
Peoples Republic of China
Mechanical-Condition Assessment of Transformer Windings Using
Frequency Response Analysis (FRA), CIGRE report 342, 2008
IEEE PC57.149/D4, Draft Guide for the Application and Interpretation
of Frequency Response Analysis for Oil Immersed Transformers, 2011
IEC 60076-18, Power transformers Part 18: Measurement of
frequency response, 2011 (for voting)
Internal standards by transformer manufacturers, e.g. ABB FRA
Standard v.5
SFRA Standards Short summary

Standard
Dynamic range
Accuracy
Signal cable grounding
Self-test
EPIS PRC DL/T 911
-100 to +20 dB
1 dB @ -80 dB
Wire, shortest length to

transformer core grounding
not stated
CIGRE brochure 342
-100 to +20 dB
(measurement
range)
1 dB @ -100 dB
Shortest braid principle
Test circuit with a known

response
Shorted leads test
IEEE PC57.149/D9 (draft)
"Sufficient dynamic
range to
accommodate most
transformer test
objects"
"Calibrated to an
acceptable
standard"
Grounded at both ends.

"Precise, repeatable and
documented" procedure
Standard test object with

a known response
IEC 60076-18
-90 to +10 dB
min 6 dB S/N
(-96 to +10 dB)
Three methods described:

Standard test object with
0.3 dB @ -40 dB 1. Same as CIGRE (2 MHz)
a known response
1 dB @ -80 dB
2. "Old" method (500 kHz)
Shorted/open leads test
3. "Inversed CIGRE" (2 MHz)
ABB FRA Technical Standard
Better than
-100 to +40 dB
(measurement
range)
Condition control of FRA

device, including coaxial
cables, is strongly
recommended
1 dB @ -100 dB
Shortest braid principle
Instrumentation
Frequency range All major brands are OK
Dynamic range
First transformer circuit resonance gives typically a -90 dB
response. Smaller transformers may have a first response at -100
dB or lower
Note that CIGRE recommends measurement range down to -100
dB. This implies a dynamic range/noise floor at about -120 dB.
Accuracy
1 dB at -100 dB fulfills all standards.
All FRAX instruments fulfills all standards for dynamic

range and accuracy!
Why you need at least -100 dB...
Measurement voltage and internal noise

Measurement voltage and internal noise/dynamic range for common SFRA test sets
20.00
Tettex 5310
FRAnalyzer
Doble M54000
Doble M53000
Doble M5200
HP4395A
HP4195A
FRAX-99
-60.00
FRAX-150
-40.00
FRAX-101
-20.00
Doble M51000
0.00
Dynamic range
Measuring voltage p-p
-80.00
-100.00
-120.00
-140.00
Measurement range comparison
-100 dB measurement
(CIGRE standard)
Black FRAX-101
Red Other SFRA
Internal noise (open) measurements

Green FRAX-101
Blue Other SFRA
Cable grounding practice

The shortest wire/braid-practice is now generally accepted
All European equipment manufacturers have adapted to
this practice
Recommended grounding practice (CIGRE)
Bad grounding practice (CIGRE)
Instrumentation verification
Verification of instrument including cables
Measurement with open cables (at clamp) should give a response
close to the noise floor of the instrument (at lower frequencies,
pending cable length)
Measurement with shorted cables (at clamp) should give close to
0 dB response (pending cable length)
External test device with known response (FTB-101 included in
FRAX standard kit)
Calibration at recommended interval

FRAX; Minimum every 3 years, calibration set and SW available
Field Verification Unit
Field verification unit with known

frequency response is
recommended in CIGRE and
other standards to verify
instrument and cables before
starting the test
FRAX - Benchmarking
Measurement voltage and internal noise

Measurement voltage and internal noise/dynamic range for common SFRA test sets
20.00
Tettex 5310
FRAnalyzer
Doble M54000
Doble M53000
Doble M5200
HP4395A
HP4195A
FRAX-99
-60.00
FRAX-150
-40.00
FRAX-101
-20.00
Doble M51000
0.00
Dynamic range
Measuring voltage p-p
-80.00
-100.00
-120.00
-140.00
FRAX 101 has the highest dynamic range, -130 dB!
Internal noise (dynamic range)

Green FRAX-101
Red Other SFRA 1
Blue Other SFRA 2
Measurement range
-100 dB measurement
(CIGRE standard)
Black FRAX-101
Red Other SFRA 1

Green FRAX-101
Blue Other SFRA 1
Field verification test (FTB101)
Blue = Other brand

Black = FRAX101
Dynamic Range Comparison (1)

End-to-end open
Green FRAX-101
Blue Other SFRA 1
Neutral to capacitive tap

Red FRAX-101
Black Other SFRA 1
Dynamic Range Comparison (2)
H1 H2 (open) measurements
Red FRAX-101
Grey Other SFRA
Dynamic Range
Measurements at first resonance
Blue FRAX
Purple Other SFRA 3
Red Other SFRA 1
Jiri Velek, CEPS SFRA Market Research, October 2006
FRAX - Compatibility
FRAX vs Doble (1)

5 MVA, Dyn, H2-H3 measurement
Blue Doble
Orange Frax

158
FRAX vs Doble (2)

YNd, H1-H0 measurement
Blue Doble
Orange Frax

159
FRAX vs Tettex and Doble

H1-H0 (short) measurement
Blue FRAX
Purple Tettex
Red Doble
(Doble high frequency
deviation due to different
grounding practice)
Jiri Velek, CEPS SFRA Market Research, October 2006

160
Frax-101, 2.8 vs 10 V meas voltage
2.8 V
10 V

161
Frax (2.8V) vs FRAnalyzer
Omicron (2.8 V)
PAX, 2.8 V

162
Summary - conclusions
SFRA is an established methodology for detecting
electromechanical changes in power transformers
Collecting reference curves on all mission critical
transformers is an investment!
Ensure repeatability by selecting good instruments and
using standardized measurement practices
Select FRAX from Megger, the ultimate Frequency
Response Analyzer!
Additional IEC slides
IEC connection picture

A
B
C
50
Vin
B
C
D
Vout
50
reference lead
response lead
earth connection
IEC FRA condition assessment
Some examples of conditions that FRA can be used

to assess are:
Damage following a through fault or other high
current event (including short-circuit testing),
Damage following a tap-changer fault,
Damage during transportation, and
Damage following a seismic event.
Damage caused by short-circuit tests
IEC Test object conditions Factory and site

The test object shall be fully assembled as for service
complete with all bushings.
Liquid or gas filled transformers and reactors shall be filled
with liquid or gas of the same type as in service conditions
Busbars or other system or test connections shall be removed
and there shall be no connections to the test object other than
those being used for the specific measurement
If internal current transformers are installed but not connected
to a protection or measurement system, the secondary
terminals shall be shorted and earthed.
The core and frame to tank connections shall be complete
and the tank shall be connected to earth.
Measurements should be performed at ambient temperature
IEC Test object conditions Site

The test object shall be disconnected from the associated
electrical system at all winding terminals and made safe for
testing.
Line, neutral and any tertiary line connections shall be
disconnected but tank earth, auxiliary equipment and current
transformer service connections shall remain connected.
In the case where two connections to one corner of a delta
winding are brought out, the transformer shall be measured
with the delta closed (see also 4.4.4).
In instances where it is impossible to connect directly to the
terminal, then the connection details shall be recorded with
the measurement data since the additional bus bars
connected to the terminals may impact on the measurement
results.
IEC Instrument performance check

1.
2.
3.
Connect the source, reference and response channels of the

instrument together using suitable low loss leads, check that the
measured amplitude ratio is 0 dB 0,3 dB across the whole
frequency range. Connect the source and reference channels
together and leave the response terminal open circuit, check that
the measured amplitude ratio is less than -90 dB across the whole
frequency range.
The performance of the instrument may be checked by measuring
the response of a known test object (test box) and checking that
the measured amplitude ratio matches the expected response of
the test object. The test object shall have a frequency response
that covers the attenuation range -10 dB to -80 dB.
The correct operation of the instrument may be checked using a
performance check procedure provided by the instrument
manufacturer. This performance check procedure shall verify that
the instrument is operating at least over an attenuation range of -10
dB to -80 dB over the whole frequency range.
IEC Measurement connection check

Measurement connection and earthing
The continuity of the main and earth connections shall be checked at the
instrument end of the coaxial cable before the measurement is made. Poor
connections can cause significant measurement errors, attention must be paid to
the continuity of the main and earth connections. In particular, connections to bolts
or flanges shall be verified to ensure that there is a good connection to the winding
or the test object tank.
Zero-check measurement
If specified, a zero-check measurement shall be carried out as an additional

measurement. Before measurements commence, all the measuring leads shall be
connected to one of the highest voltage terminals and earthed using the normal
method. A measurement is then made which will indicate the frequency response
of the measurement circuit alone. The zero check measurement shall also be
repeated on other voltage terminals if specified.
The zero-check measurement can provide useful information as to the highest
frequency that can be relied upon for interpretation of the measurement.
Repeatability check
On completion of the standard measurements the measurement leads and earth

connections shall be disconnected and then the first measurement shall be
repeated and recorded.
IEC Measurement configuration with OLTC

For transformers and reactors with an on-load tap-changer
(OLTC), the standard measurement on the tapped winding
shall be
on the tap-position with the highest number of effective turns in circuit,
and
on the tap-position with the tap winding out of circuit.
Other windings with a fixed number of turns shall be

measured on the tap-position for the highest number of
effective turns in the tap winding.
Additional measurements may be specified at other tappositions.
For neutral or change-over positions, the direction of
movement of the tap-changer shall be in the lowering voltage
direction unless otherwise specified. The direction of
movement (raise or lower) shall be recorded.
IEC Measurement configuration Auto with OLTC

For auto-transformers with a line-end tap-changer, the
standard measurements shall be:
on the series winding with the minimum number of actual turns of the
tap-winding in circuit (the tapping for the highest LV voltage for a linear
potentiometer type tapping arrangement or the change-over position for
a reversing type tapping arrangement, or the tapping for the lowest LV
voltage in a linear separate winding tapping arrangement),
on the common winding with the maximum number of effective turns of
the tap-winding in circuit (the tapping for the highest LV voltage), and
on the common winding with the minimum number of actual turns of the
tap-winding in circuit (the tapping for the lowest LV voltage for a linear
potentiometer or separate winding type tapping arrangement or the
change-over position for a reversing type tapping arrangement).
IEC Measurement configuration DECT and OLTC

For transformers with both an OLTC and a de-energised tapchanger (DETC), the DETC shall be in the service position if
specified or otherwise the nominal position for the
measurements at the OLTC positions described in this
Clause.
For transformers fitted with a DETC, baseline measurements
shall also be made on each position of the DETC with the
OLTC (if fitted) on the position for maximum effective turns.
It is not recommended that the position of a DETC on a
transformer that has been in service is changed in order to
make a frequency response measurement, the measurement
should be made on the as found DETC tap position. It is
therefore necessary to make sufficient baseline
measurements to ensure that baseline data is available for
any likely service (as found) position of the DETC.
IEC Frequency range and measurement points

The lowest frequency measurement shall be at or below
20 Hz.
The minimum highest frequency measurement for test objects
with highest voltage > 72,5 kV shall be 1 MHz.
The minimum highest frequency measurement for test objects
with highest voltage of 72,5 kV shall be 2 MHz.
Below 100 Hz, measurements shall be made at intervals not
exceeding 10 Hz
Above 100 Hz, a minimum of 200 measurements
approximately evenly spaced on either a linear or logarithmic
scale shall be made in each decade of frequency.
IEC Measurement equipment specification (1)

Dynamic range
The minimum dynamic range of the measuring instrument shall be
+10 dB to -90 dB of the maximum output signal level of the voltage
source at a minimum signal to noise ratio of 6 dB over the whole
frequency range.
Amplitude measurement accuracy

The accuracy of the measurement of the ratio between Vin and Vout
shall be better than 0,3 dB for all ratios between +10 dB and -40 dB
and 1 dB for all ratios between -40 dB and -80 dB over the whole
frequency range.
Phase measurement accuracy

The accuracy of the measurement of the phase difference between Vin
and Vout shall be better than 1 at signal ratios between +10 dB and 40 dB, over the whole frequency range.
Frequency range
The minimum frequency range shall be 20 Hz to 2 MHz.
IEC Measurement equipment specification (2)

Frequency accuracy
The accuracy of the frequency (as reported in the measurement record) shall be
better than 0,1 % over the whole frequency range.
Measurement resolution bandwidth

For measurements below 100 Hz, the maximum measurement resolution
bandwidth (between -3 dB points) shall be 10 Hz; above 100 Hz, it shall be less
than 10 % of the measurement frequency or half the interval between adjacent
measuring frequencies whichever is less.
Operating temperature range

The instrument shall operate within the accuracy and other requirements over a
temperature range of 0 to +45 C.
Smoothing of recorded data

The output data recorded to fulfil the requirements of this standard shall not be
smoothed by any method that uses adjacent frequency measurements, but
averaging or other techniques to reduce noise using multiple measurements at a
particular frequency or using measurements within the measurement resolution
bandwidth for the particular measurement frequency are acceptable.
IEC Measurement records
Test object identifier

Date
Time
Test object manufacturer
Test object serial number
Measuring equipment
The peak voltage used for the measurement.
Reference terminal
Response terminal
Terminals connected together
Earthed terminals
OLTC tap positions, current and previous
DETC position
Test object temperature
Fluid filled, yes or no.
Comments, free text to be used to state the condition of the test object
Measurement result (the frequency in Hz, the amplitude in dB and the phase in degrees) for
each measurement frequency
IEC Test records (1)

Test object data
Manufacturer
Year of manufacture
Manufacturers serial number
Highest continuous rated power of each winding
Rated voltage for each windings
Short circuit impedance between each pair of windings
Rated frequency
Vector group, winding configuration / arrangement
Number of phases (single or three-phase)
Transformer or reactor type (e.g. GSU, phase shifter, transmission, distribution, furnace,
industrial, railway, shunt, series, etc.)
Transformer configuration (e.g. auto, double wound, buried tertiary, etc.)
Transformer or reactor construction (e.g core form, shell form), number of legs (3 or 5-leg),
winding type, etc.
Load tap-changer (OLTC): number of taps, range and configuration (linear, reversing,
coarse-fine, line-end, neutral-end, etc.)
De-Energized Tap Changer (DETC): number of positions, range, configuration, etc.

Organisation owning the test object
Test object identification (as given by the owner if any)

Any other information that may influence the result of the measurement
Location data
Location (e.g. site name, test field, harbour, etc.)

Bay identification reference if applicable
Notable surrounding conditions (e.g. live overhead line or energized busbars nearby)
Any other special features
Measuring equipment data
Working principle of device (sweep or impulse)

Equipment name and model number
Manufacturer
Equipment serial number
Calibration date
Any other special features of the equipment
Test organization data
Company
Operator

Measurement set-up data
Remanence of the core: was the measurement carried out immediately following
a resistance or switching impulse test, or was it deliberately demagnetised?
Whether the tank was earthed
Measurement type (e.g. open circuit, short circuit, etc.)
Length of braids used to ground the cable shields
Length of coaxial cables
Reason for measurement (e.g. routine, retest, troubleshooting,

commissioning new transformer, commissioning used transformer,
protection tripping, recommissioning, acceptance testing, warranty
testing, bushing replacement, OLTC maintenance, fault operation,
etc.)
Additional information
Photographs of the test object as measured showing the position of
the bushings and connections
IEC Measurement lead connction. Method 1

The central conductor of the coaxial
measurement leads shall be connected
directly to the test object terminal using
the shortest possible length of
unshielded conductor.
The shortest possible connection
between the screen of the measuring
lead and the flange at the base of the
bushing shall be made using braid. A
specific clamp arrangement or similar is
required to make the earth connection as
short as possible
In general this method may be expected
to give repeatable measurements up to
2 MHz
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
connection clamp
unshielded length to be made as short as possible
measurement cable shield
central conductor
shortest braid
bushing
earth connection
earth clamp
tank
smallest loop

Method 2 is identical to method 1
except that the earth connection
from the measurement leads to the
flange at the base of the terminal
bushing may be made using a fixed
length wire or braid, so that the
connection is not the shortest
possible.
The position of the excess earth
conductor length in relation to the
bushing may affect amplitude (dB)
measurements above 500 kHz and
resonant frequencies above 1 MHz

In a method 3 connection, the screen of
the coaxial measurement lead is
connected directly to the test object tank
at the base of the bushing and an
unshielded conductor is used to connect
the central conductor to the terminal at
the top of the bushing.
If a method 3 connection is used for the
response lead connection only then the
results are comparable with method 1.
This connection may be the most
practical option if an external shunt
(measuring impedance) is used
If a common conductor is used for the
signal and reference connections then
the conductor is included in the
measurement which will therefore differ
from a method 1 measurement
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
connection clamp
shortest braid or wire
measurement cable shield
central conductor
earth clamp
tank
smallest loop
IEC Frequency response comparison

In order to interpret a measured frequency response, a comparison
is made between
The measured response and a previous baseline measurement (time based
comparison)
With the response measured on a twin transformer, a transformer made to the
same drawings from the same manufacturer (type based comparisons). Careful
attention should be given when using responses from sister transformers
(transformers with the same specification but with possible differences in winding
configuration even from the same manufacturer) for comparison. Improvements
and changes to the transformer design may have been introduced by a
manufacturer over a period of time to outwardly similar units and this may cause
different frequency responses
For three-phase transformers, comparisons can also be made between the
responses of the individual phases (design based comparisons). When
comparing phases of the same transformer quite significant differences are
considered normal and could be due to different internal lead lengths, different
winding inter-connections and different proximities of the phases to the tank and
the other phases
IEC Comparisons of frequency responses

The comparison of frequency response measurements is used to
identify the possibility of problems in the transformer. Problems are
indicated by the following criteria:
Changes in the overall shape of the frequency response;
Changes in the number of resonances (maxima) and antiresonances (minima);
Shifts in the position of the resonant frequencies.
The confidence in the identification of a problem in the transformer
based on the above criteria will depend on the magnitude of the
change when compared with the level of change to be expected for
the type of comparison being made (baseline, twin, sister or phase).
IEC Typical frequency response
Influence regions:
A
core
B
interaction between windings
C
winding structure
D
measurement setup and lead (including earthing connection)
IEC Influence of tertiary delta connections

10
0
-10
Amplitude, dB
-20
-30
-40
-50
-60
-70
delta open
delta closed
-80
-90 1
10
10
10
10
Frequency, Hz
10
10
IEC Influence of star neutral connections

0
-5
Amplitude, dB
-10
-15
-20
-25
-30
-35
neutrals open
neutrals joined
-40
-45 1
10
10
10
10
Frequency, Hz
10
10
IEC Influence of measurment direction (example)

0
-10
Amplitude, dB
-20
-30
-40
-50
-60
-70
HV to N
N to HV
-80
-90 1
10
10
10
10
Frequency, Hz
10
10
IEC Influence of oil

-20
-30
Amplitude, dB
-40
-50
-60
-70
Full oil
Without oil
-80
-90 1
10
10
10
10
Frequency, Hz
10
10
IEC Influence of DC injection (magnetization)

10
0
Amplitude, dB
-10
-20
-30
-40
-50
-60
Before DC
After DC
-70
-80 1
10
10
10
10
Frequency, Hz
10
10
IEC Influence of bushings

0
Amplitude, dB
-20
-40
-60
-80
oil/SF6/air bushing
oil/SF6 bushing
-100 1
10
10
10
10
Frequency, Hz
10
10
IEC Influence of temperature (minor efftect)

-20
Amplitude, dB
-30
-40
-50
-60
32 C
-70
80 C
-80 1
10
10
10
10
Frequency, Hz
10
10
IEC Bad measurements

-40
Amplitude, dB
-60
-80
-100
-120
HV to N (good measurement)
HV to N with bad connection at N
Hv to N with bad connection at HV
-140
-160 1
10
10
10
10
Frequency, Hz
10
10
Additional IEEE slides
IEEE When to perform FRA measurements
Factory short-circuit testing

Installation or relocation
After a significant through-fault event
As part of routine diagnostic measurement protocol
After a transformer alarm (i.e. sudden pressure, gas detector,
Buchholz)
After a major change in on-line diagnostic condition (i.e. a sudden
increase in combustible gas, etc.)
After a change in electrical test conditions (i.e. a change in winding
capacitance)
System Modeling Purposes
IEEE FRA base line measurement

Quality assurance
Required by Customer Specification
To provide a standard of comparison for future diagnostic
FRA measurements
IEEE FRA base line measurement

Quality assurance
Required by Customer Specification
To provide a standard of comparison for future diagnostic
FRA measurements
IEEE FRA diagnostic application

Verification that no damage occurred during a short
circuit test
Relocation and commissioning validation
Post incident verification : lightning, external throughfault, internal short circuit, seismic event etc
Routine diagnostic purposes
Condition assessment of older transformers
Evaluation of used or spare transformers
IEEE SFRA instrument specification

Calibrated to an acceptable standard.
The output power of the excitation source should provide adequate power over
the entire frequency range to allow for consistent measurement of the transfer
function across the frequency range.
The test set should be capable of measuring sufficient dynamic range, over
the frequency range in order to accommodate most transformer test objects
The test set should be capable of collecting a minimum of 200 measurements
per decade, either spaced linearly or logarithmically.
The test system (set and leads) should provide a known and constant
characteristic impedance.
A three lead system, signal, reference and test, should be used to reduce
effect of leads in the measurement.
Test leads should be coaxial cables of the same length, within 1 cm, and less
then 30 m (100 ft) long. Shielded test leads should have the ability to be
grounded at either end.
Both the Magnitude and Phase of the measured transfer function should be
presented.
IEEE Measurement type; Open circuit

An open circuit measurement is made from one end of a
winding to another with all other terminals floating. The Open
Circuit test can be applied to both single phase and three phase
transformers. Open Circuit tests generally fall into five winding
categories: High Voltage, Low Voltage, Tertiary, Series, and
Common. The Series and Common categories are applied to
autotransformers.
Open Circuit tests are primarily influenced by the core
properties at or around the fundamental power frequency. The
Open Circuit tests can be used in conjunction with exciting
current tests in determining failure modes that affect the
magnetic circuit of the transformer.
IEEE Measurement type; Short circuit

The short circuit measurement is made from one end of a high
voltage winding to another while the associated low voltage
winding is shorted. For repeatability purposes, it is
recommended that all low voltage windings are shorted on three
phase transformers to create a three phase equivalent short
circuit model. This ensures all three phase are similarly shorted
to give consistent impedance. Any available neutral connections
should not be included in the shorting process.
The Short Circuit test isolates the winding impedance from the
core effects properties at or around the fundamental power
frequency. The Short Circuit results should produce similar and
comparable diagnostic information as seen in both leakage
reactance and DC winding resistance measurements.
IEEE Measurement type; Capacitive inter-winding

The capacitive inter-winding measurement also known as the
inter-winding measurement is performed between two
electrically isolated windings. A Capacitive Inter-Winding
measurement is made from one end of a winding and
measuring the signal through one of the terminals of another
winding, with all other terminals floating. Capacitive InterWinding measurements are capacitive in nature. These
measurements exhibit a high impedance at low frequencies
(<100 Hz); the impedance generally decreases as frequency
increases. This would include, for example, H1 to X1 on a
double wound transformer, or H1 to Y1 on an autotransformer
with a tertiary. Note that H1 to X1 on an autotransformer is not
an Inter-Winding measurement but an open circuit
measurement on the series winding.
IEEE Measurement type; Inductive inter-winding

The inductive inter-winding measurement also known as the
transfer voltage measurement is performed between two
windings with one end of each winding grounded. All other
winding terminals not under test should remain floating. The
inductive inter-winding measurement most closely resembles
the turns ratio test properties at or around the fundamental
power frequency.
IEEE Influence of residual magnetization

Residual magnetization within the core must be identified, so as not to
be mis-interpreted as an actual fault.
Residual magnetization is the flux density that remains in the core
steel.
DC winding resistance testing, switching operations, and geomagnetic
phenomena are sources of residual magnetism.
Residual magnetization can be identified by the shifting of the low
frequency core resonance (zero) to the right compared to the
demagnetized results.
Residual magnetization can be removed by demagnetizing the core,
and should be conducted if there is concern about the condition of the
core.
IEEE Influence of an open circuit

An open circuit can be caused by connections that come loose or coils
that become burned through due to a catastrophic thermal failure.
The end result is very high impedances being inserted into the
measurement circuit. It is common that the transfer function will drop
across a wide spectrum.
For complete open circuits, the results will often be lost in the noise
floor of the measurement.

SFRA testing basics
frquence
Generator test voltage
Measured voltage
Phase,
Gain, dB
V
G(dB) 20 log10 out
Vin

SFRA - Theory and Method - Standards - 120911

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Sweep Frequency Response Analysis

Advanced Transformer Testing 2012

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Rponse et analyse dun balayage en

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