EFL Students' Learning

Styles and Strategies

There has been a prominent shift within the field of

language learning and teaching over the last twenty
years with greater emphasis being put on learners and
learning rather than on teachers and teaching

Research into language learning strategies

began in the 1970s.

Particularly,
developments
in
cognitive
psychology influenced much of the research
done on language learning strategies.

In most of this research, the primary concern has been

on "identifying what good language learners report they
do to learn a second or foreign language, or, in some
cases, are observed doing while learning a second or
foreign language (Rubin, 1975; Wenden,1982; O'Malley,
1987; Conti and Kolsody, 1997).

Foreign or second language learners have been seen to be

more actively responsible for their learning

Research also has helped us to find out more about the

characteristics of good learners and shed light on some various
aspects of their learning (Oxford, 1990; Stern,1992)

What is a learning style?

Oxford and Ehrman (1988): learning style as a
blend of cognitive, affective, and behavioral
elements that serve as relatively stable indicators
of how a learner perceives, interacts with, and
responds to the learning environment (p. 24).
Sternberg (1994): a preferred way of using one's
abilities. It is not in itself an ability but rather a
preference (p. 36).

Lawrence
(1984) learning style
encompasses four aspects of the person:

to

A cognitive style.

Patterns of attitudes and interests that affect what

an individual will pay most attention to in a learning
situation.

A tendency to seek situations compatible with one's

own learning pattern.

A tendency to use certain learning strategies and

avoid others

Patterns
Of
Attitudes

Cognitive
Style

Learning style

Tendency to
Use certain learning
Strategies &
Avoid others

Tendency
To
Seek
Situations
Compatible with their
learning pattern

Cognitive Styles
Cognitive Styles are the information processing habits
which represent a persons typical modes of perceiving,
thinking, remembering, and problem solving.

Learning Strategies
Oxford (1990): the specific actions, behaviors,
steps or techniques that students use to
improve their progress in apprehending,
internalizing and using the second language.

Oxfords Classification of Language Learning

Strategies: direct and indirect.

DIRECT STRATEGIES:

I. Memory
A. Creating mental linkages
B. Applying images and sounds
C. Reviewing well
D. Employing action
II. Cognitive
A. Practising
B. Receiving and sending messages strategies
C. Analysing and reasoning
D. Creating structure for input and output

III. Compensation strategies

A. Guessing intelligently
B. Overcoming limitations in speaking and writing

INDIRECT STRATEGIES
I. Metacognitive Strategies
A. Centering your learning
B. Arranging and planning your learning
C. Evaluating your learning
II. Affective Strategies
A. Lowering your anxiety
B. Encouraging yourself
C. Taking your emotional temperature
III. Social Strategies
A. Asking questions
B. Cooperating with others
C. Emphathising with others

Gregorcs Taxonomy
Experiential

Intuitive

Curious

Concrete

Organized
Realistic

Divergent

Risk-taking

Conventional

Concrete
Random

Concrete
Sequential

Hasty

Random
imaginative

Accurate

Sequential

Abstract
Random

Intellectual

Abstract
Sequential

Analytical

Flexible
Emotional
Convergent
Interpretive

Holistic

Abstract

Theoretical
Critical

The taxonomy developed by the Wisconsin

Center for Education and Work (WCEW):

Auditory

I can remember more about a subject through the

lecture method with information, explanations and
discussion.
I require explanations of diagrams, graphs, or visual
directions.
I can tell if sounds match when presented with
pairs of sounds.
I do better at academic subjects by listening to
lectures and tapes.

Visual:

I prefer information to be written on the chalkboard, with

the use of visual aids and assigned readings.
I remember best by writing things down several times.
I like to write things down or to take notes for visual
review.
I can understand and follow directions on maps.

Verbal:

I learn to spell better by repeating the words out loud

than by writing the word on papers.
I express myself orally very well.
I am very good at socializing with others.
I like reciting what I study to myself more than writing it
down.

Kinesthetic

I enjoy working with my hands or making things.

I am skillful with and enjoy developing and making
graphs and charts.
I prefer to use posters, models, or actual practice
and some activities in class
I play with coins or keys in pockets.

Activities to activate learning styles and

strategies

Contests

Cooperative
Listening

Mnemonic
devices

Riddle
s

Concept
mapping

Discovery
Learning
activities

Demos
Role -playing

Literature
circles

Hands-on
Experience
s

Debate
s

Projects

Jigsaw
Reading
technique

Lecturing

Students
presentations

Journal
writing

Multimedia
instruction
Communicative
activities

Text analysis
activities

Concept
mapping
Pair &
Group
work

Problemsolving
activities

Graphic organizers

Individual
work

References

BROWN, Douglas. 1987. Principles of Language Learning

and Teaching. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.

LESSARD-CLOUSTON,
Michael.
1997.
Learning Strategies: An Overview for L2
on The Internet TESL Journal

FAERCH, Claus and G. KASPER. 1983. Strategies in

Interlanguage Communication. London: Longman.

FEDDERHOLDT, Karen. 1997. "Using Diaries to Develop

Language Learning Strategies" on Internet

HALL, Stephen. 1997. "Language Learning Strategies:

from the ideals to classroom tasks". Language and
Communication
Division,
Temasek
Polytechnic
on Internet

"Language
Teachers"

O'MALLEY, J. Michael, CHAMOT, Anna U., STEWNERMANZANARES, Gloria, RUSSO, Rocco P., and L.
KUPPER. 1985. "Learning Strategy Applications with
Students of English as a Second Language" in TESOL
Quarterly 19: 557-584.

OXFORD, Rebecca. 1990. Language Learning Strategies:

What Every Teacher Should Know. New York: Newbury
House Publishers.

RICHARDS, J. and John PLATT. 1992. Longman

Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied
Linguistics. Essex: Longman.

STERN, H.H. 1992. Issues and Options in Language

Teaching. Oxford: OUP.

WENDEN, A. and Joan RUBIN. 1987. Learner Strategies in

Language Learning. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.