Chapter 43

Chapter 43
The Immune System
PowerPoint Lectures for

Biology, Seventh Edition
Neil Campbell and Jane Reece
Lectures by Chris Romero

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Overview: Reconnaissance, Recognition, and

Response
An animal must defend itself
From the many dangerous pathogens it may
encounter in the environment
Two major kinds of defense have evolved that

counter these threats
Innate immunity and acquired immunity
Innate immunity
Is present before any exposure to pathogens
and is effective from the time of birth
Involves nonspecific responses to pathogens
Figure 43.1
3m
Acquired immunity, also called adaptive

immunity
Develops only after exposure to inducing
agents such as microbes, toxins, or other
foreign substances
Involves a very specific response to pathogens
A summary of innate and acquired immunity
INNATE IMMUNITY
Rapid responses to a
broad range of microbes
External defenses
Invading
microbes
(pathogens)
Internal defenses
Skin
Phagocytic cells
Mucous membranes
Antimicrobial proteins
Secretions
Inflammatory response
Figure 43.2
ACQUIRED IMMUNITY
Slower responses to
specific microbes
Natural killer cells
Humoral response
(antibodies)
Cell-mediated response
(cytotoxic
lymphocytes)
Concept 43.1: Innate immunity provides broad

defenses against infection
A pathogen that successfully breaks through an
animals external defenses
Soon encounters several innate cellular and
chemical mechanisms that impede its attack
on the body
External Defenses
Intact skin and mucous membranes
Form physical barriers that bar the entry of
microorganisms and viruses
Certain cells of the mucous membranes

produce mucus
A viscous fluid that traps microbes and other
particles
In the trachea, ciliated epithelial cells

Sweep mucus and any entrapped microbes
upward, preventing the microbes from entering
the lungs
10m
Figure 43.3
Secretions of the skin and mucous membranes

Provide an environment that is often hostile to
microbes
Secretions from the skin

Give the skin a pH between 3 and 5, which is
acidic enough to prevent colonization of many
microbes
Also include proteins such as lysozyme, an
enzyme that digests the cell walls of many
bacteria
Internal Cellular and Chemical Defenses

Internal cellular defenses
Depend mainly on phagocytosis
Phagocytes, types of white blood cells

Ingest invading microorganisms
Initiate the inflammatory response
Phagocytic Cells
Phagocytes attach to their prey via surface receptors
And engulf them, forming a vacuole that fuses with a
lysosome
1 Pseudopodia
surround
microbes.
Microbes
2 Microbes
are engulfed
into cell.
MACROPHAGE
3 Vacuole
containing
microbes
forms.
Vacuole
Lysosome
containing
enzymes
4 Vacuole
and lysosome
fuse.
5 Toxic
compounds
and lysosomal
enzymes
destroy microbes.
Figure 43.4
6 Microbial
debris is
released by
exocytosis.
Macrophages, a specific type of phagocyte

Can be found migrating through the body
Can be found in various organs of the
lymphatic system
The lymphatic system

Plays an active role in defending the body from
pathogens
1 Interstitial fluid bathing the
tissues, along with the white
blood cells in it, continually
enters lymphatic capillaries.
Interstitial
fluid
Adenoid
Lymphatic
capillary
2 Fluid inside the
lymphatic capillaries,
called lymph, flows
through lymphatic
vessels throughout
the body.
Tonsil
4 Lymphatic vessels
return lymph to the
blood via two large
ducts that drain into
veins near the
shoulders.
Lymph
nodes
Spleen
Peyers patches
(small intestine)
Blood
capillary
Tissue
cells
Lymphatic
vessel
Appendix
Lymphatic
vessels
Figure 43.5
Lymph
node
Masses of
lymphocytes and
macrophages
3 Within lymph nodes,

microbes and foreign
particles present in
the circulating lymph
encounter macrophages, dendritic cells,
and lymphocytes,
which carry out
various defensive
actions.
Antimicrobial Proteins
Numerous proteins function in innate defense
By attacking microbes directly of by impeding
their reproduction
About 30 proteins make up the complement

system
Which can cause lysis of invading cells and
help trigger inflammation
Interferons
Provide innate defense against viruses and
help activate macrophages
Inflammatory Response
In local inflammation, histamine and other
chemicals released from injured cells
Promote changes in blood vessels that allow
more fluid, more phagocytes, and antimicrobial
proteins to enter the tissues
Major events in the local inflammatory response

Blood clot
Pin
Pathogen
Macrophage
Chemical signals
Phagocytic cells
Capillary
Blood
clotting
elements
Phagocytosis
Red blood cell

1 Chemical signals released
by activated macrophages
and mast cells at the injury
site cause nearby capillaries
to widen and become more
permeable.
2 Fluid, antimicrobial proteins,

and clotting elements move
from the blood to the site.
Clotting begins.
Figure 43.6
3 Chemokines released by various

kinds of cells attract more
phagocytic cells from the blood
to the injury site.
4 Neutrophils and macrophages

phagocytose pathogens and
cell debris at the site, and the
tissue heals.
Natural Killer Cells

Natural killer (NK) cells
Patrol the body and attack virus-infected body
cells and cancer cells
Trigger apoptosis in the cells they attack
Invertebrate Immune Mechanisms

Many invertebrates defend themselves from
infection
By many of the same mechanisms in the
vertebrate innate response
Concept 43.2: In acquired immunity,

lymphocytes provide specific defenses against
infection
Acquired immunity
Is the bodys second major kind of defense
Involves the activity of lymphocytes
An antigen is any foreign molecule

That is specifically recognized by lymphocytes
and elicits a response from them
A lymphocyte actually recognizes and binds

To just a small, accessible portion of the antigen
called an epitope
Antigenbinding
sites
Antibody A
Antigen
Antibody B
Antibody C
Figure 43.7
Epitopes
(antigenic
determinants)
Antigen Recognition by Lymphocytes

The vertebrate body is populated by two main
types of lymphocytes
B lymphocytes (B cells) and T lymphocytes
(T cells)
Which circulate through the blood
The plasma membranes of both B cells

and T cells
Have about 100,000 antigen receptor that all
recognize the same epitope
B Cell Receptors for Antigens

B cell receptors
Bind to specific, intact antigens
Are often called membrane antibodies or membrane
immunoglobulins
V
Disulfide
bridge
Light
chain
Antigenbinding site
Antigenbinding
site
Variable
regions
Constant
regions
C C
Transmembrane
region
Heavy chains
B cell
Figure 43.8a
Plasma
membrane
Cytoplasm of B cell
(a) A B cell receptor consists of two identical heavy
chains and two identical light chains linked by
several disulfide bridges.
T Cell Receptors for Antigens and the Role of the MHC
Each T cell receptor

Consists of two different polypeptide chains
AntigenBinding site
Variable
regions
Constant
regions
Transmembrane
region
Plasma
membrane
chain
chain
Disulfide bridge
Cytoplasm of T cell
Figure 43.8b
(b) A T cell receptor consists of one

chain and one chain linked by
a disulfide bridge.
T cell
T cells bind to small fragments of antigens

That are bound to normal cell-surface proteins
called MHC molecules
MHC molecules
Are encoded by a family of genes called the
major histocompatibility complex
Infected cells produce MHC molecules

Which bind to antigen fragments and then are
transported to the cell surface in a process
called antigen presentation
A nearby T cell
Can then detect the antigen fragment
displayed on the cells surface
Depending on their source

Peptide antigens are handled by different
classes of MHC molecules
Class I MHC molecules, found on almost all

nucleated cells of the body
Display peptide antigens to cytotoxic T cells
Infected cell
Antigen
fragment
1
1 A fragment of
foreign protein
(antigen) inside the
cell associates with
an MHC molecule
and is transported
to the cell surface.
Class I MHC
molecule
2
T cell
receptor
Figure 43.9a
(a) Cytotoxic T cell
2 The combination of
MHC molecule and
antigen is recognized
by a T cell, alerting it
to the infection.
Class II MHC molecules, located mainly on

dendritic cells, macrophages, and B cells
Display antigens to helper T cells
AntigenMicrobe
presenting
cell
1 A fragment of
foreign protein
(antigen) inside the
cell associates with
an MHC molecule
and is transported
to the cell surface.
Antigen
fragment
1
2
2 The combination of
MHC molecule and
antigen is recognized
by a T cell, alerting it
to the infection.
Figure 43.9b
(b)
Class II MHC
molecule
T cell
receptor
Helper T cell
Lymphocyte Development
Lymphocytes
Arise from stem cells in the bone marrow
Newly formed lymphocytes are all alike

But they later develop into B cells or T cells,
depending on where they continue their maturation
Bone marrow
Lymphoid
stem cell
Thymus
T cell
B cell
Figure 43.10
Blood, lymph, and lymphoid tissues

(lymph nodes, spleen, and others)
Generation of Lymphocyte Diversity by Gene

Rearrangement
Early in development, random, permanent
gene rearrangement
Forms functional genes encoding the B or T
cell antigen receptor chains
Immunoglobulin gene rearrangement

V4V39
DNA of
undifferentiated
B cell
V2
V1
V40
V3
J1 J2 J3 J4 J5 Intron
1 Deletion of DNA between a V segment
and J segment and joining of the segments
DNA of differentiated
B cell
V1
V3 J5 Intron
V2
2 Transcription of resulting permanently rearranged,

functional gene
pre-mRNA
V3 J5
Intron
3
mRNA Cap
V3 J5
C
RNA processing (removal of intron; addition of cap
and poly (A) tail)
Poly (A)
4 Translation
Light-chain polypeptide
Figure 43.11
Variable Constant
region
region
B cell receptor
B cell
Testing and Removal of Self-Reactive Lymphocytes

As B and T cells are maturing in the bone and
thymus
Their antigen receptors are tested for possible
self-reactivity
Lymphocytes bearing receptors for antigens

already present in the body
Are destroyed by apoptosis or rendered
nonfunctional
Clonal Selection of Lymphocytes

In a primary immune response
Binding of antigen to a mature lymphocyte
induces the lymphocytes proliferation and
differentiation, a process called clonal
selection
Clonal selection of B cells

Generates a clone of short-lived activated effector
cells and a clone of long-lived memory cells
Antigen molecules
B cells that
differ in
antigen
specificity
Antigen
receptor
Antigen molecules
bind to the antigen
receptors of only one
of the three B cells
shown.
The selected B cell

proliferates, forming
a clone of identical
cells bearing
receptors for the
selecting antigen.
Some proliferating cells
develop into long-lived
memory cells that can
respond rapidly upon
subsequent exposure
to the same antigen.
Antibody
molecules
Clone of memory cells
Figure 43.12
Clone of plasma cells
Some proliferating
cells develop into
short-lived plasma
cells that secrete
antibodies specific
for the antigen.
In the secondary immune response

Memory cells facilitate a faster, more efficient
response
1 Day 1: First
3 Day 28:
2 Primary
exposure to
Second exposure
response to
antigen A
to antigen A; first
antigen A
exposure to
produces antiantigen B
bodies to A
4 Secondary response to antigen A produces antibodies

to A; primary response to antigen B produces antibodies to B
Antibody concentration
(arbitrary units)
104
103
102
Antibodies
to A
Antibodies
to B
101
100
Figure 43.13
14
21
28
35
Time (days)
42
49
56
Concept 43.3: Humoral and cell-mediated

immunity defend against different types of
threats
Acquired immunity includes two branches
The humoral immune response involves the
activation and clonal selection of B cells,
resulting in the production of secreted
antibodies
The cell-mediated immune response involves
the activation and clonal selection of cytotoxic
T cells
The roles of the major participants in the

acquired immune response
Cell-mediated immune response
Humoral immune response
First exposure to antigen
Intact antigens
Antigens engulfed and

displayed by dendritic cells
Antigens displayed
by infected cells
Activate
Activate
Activate
B cell
Gives rise to
Plasma
cells
Figure 43.14
Memory
B cells
Helper
T cell
Gives rise to
Active and
memory
helper
T cells
Secrete antibodies that defend against

pathogens and toxins in extracellular fluid
Secreted
cytokines
activate
Cytotoxic
T cell
Gives rise to
Memory
cytotoxic
T cells
Active
cytotoxic
T cells
Defend against infected cells, cancer

cells, and transplanted tissues
Helper T Cells: A Response to Nearly All Antigens

Helper T cells produce CD4, a surface protein
That enhances their binding to class II MHC
moleculeantigen complexes on antigenpresenting cells
Activation of the helper T cell then occurs
Activated helper T cells

Secrete several different cytokines that
stimulate other lymphocytes
The role of helper T cells in acquired immunity

1 After a dendritic cell engulfs and degrades a bacterium, it displays
bacterial antigen fragments (peptides) complexed with a class II
MHC molecule on the cell surface. A specific helper T cell binds
to the displayed complex via its TCR with the aid of CD4. This
interaction promotes secretion of cytokines by the dendritic cell.
Dendritic
cell
Bacterium
Cytotoxic T cell
Peptide antigen
Class II MHC
molecule
Helper T cell
Cell-mediated
immunity
(attack on
infected cells)
TCR
2
1 CD4
Dendritic
cell
Cytokines
2 Proliferation of the T cell, stimulated
by cytokines from both the dendritic
cell and the T cell itself, gives rise to
a clone of activated helper T cells
(not shown), all with receptors for the
same MHCantigen complex.
Figure 43.15
B cell
3 The cells in this clone
secrete other cytokines
that help activate B cells
and cytotoxic T cells.
Humoral
immunity
(secretion of
antibodies by
plasma cells)
Cytotoxic T Cells: A Response to Infected Cells and

Cancer Cells
Cytotoxic T cells make CD8
A surface protein that greatly enhances the
interaction between a target cell and a
cytotoxic T cell
Cytotoxic T cells
Bind to infected cells, cancer cells, and
transplanted tissues
Binding to a class I MHC complex on an

infected body cell
Activates a cytotoxic T cell and differentiates it
into an active killer
The activated cytotoxic T cell

Secretes proteins that destroy the infected target
cell
2 The activated T cell releases perforin
1 A specific cytotoxic T cell binds to a
3 The granzymes initiate apoptosis within the
class I MHCantigen complex on a
target cell via its TCR with the aid of
CD8. This interaction, along with
cytokines from helper T cells, leads to
the activation of the cytotoxic cell.
molecules, which form pores in the

target cell membrane, and proteolytic
enzymes (granzymes), which enter the
target cell by endocytosis.
Cytotoxic T cell
target cells, leading to fragmentation of the

nucleus, release of small apoptotic bodies,
and eventual cell death. The released
cytotoxic T cell can attack other target cells.
Released
cytotoxic
T cell
Perforin
Cancer
cell
Granzymes
1 TCR
Class I MHC
molecule
Target
cell
CD8
2
Apoptotic
target cell
Pore
Peptide
antigen
Figure 43.16
Cytotoxic
T cell
B Cells: A Response to Extracellular Pathogens

Activation of B cells
Is aided by cytokines and antigen binding to
helper T cells
The clonal selection of B cells

Generates antibody-secreting plasma cells, the
effector cells of humoral immunity
1 After a macrophage engulfs and degrades
a bacterium, it displays a peptide antigen

complexed with a class II MHC molecule.
A helper T cell that recognizes the displayed
complex is activated with the aid of cytokines
secreted from the macrophage, forming a
clone of activated helper T cells (not shown).
A B cell that has taken up and degraded the

same bacterium displays class II MHCpeptide
antigen complexes. An activated helper T cell
bearing receptors specific for the displayed
antigen binds to the B cell. This interaction,
with the aid of cytokines from the T cell,
activates the B cell.
3 The activated B cell proliferates
and differentiates into memory

B cells and antibody-secreting
plasma cells. The secreted
antibodies are specific for the
same bacterial antigen that
initiated the response.
Bacterium
Macrophage
Peptide
antigen
Class II
MHC
molecule
B cell
2
TCR
Clone of plasma cells
CD4
Cytokines
Helper T cell
Activated
helper T cell
Figure 43.17
Clone of memory
B cells
Secreted antibody
molecules
Endoplasmic
reticulum of
plasma cell
Antibody Classes
The five major classes of antibodies, or
immunoglobulins
Differ in their distributions and functions within
the body
The five classes of immunoglobulins

IgM
(pentamer)
First Ig class produced after initial exposure to

antigen; then its concentration in the blood declines
J chain
IgG
(monomer)
Promotes neutralization and agglutination of

antigens; very effective in complement activation
(see Figure 43.19)
Most abundant Ig class in blood; also present in
tissue fluids
Only Ig class that crosses placenta, thus conferring
passive immunity on fetus
Promotes opsonization, neutralization, and agglutination
of antigens; less effective in complement activation than
IgM (see Figure 43.19)
Present in secretions such as tears, saliva, mucus,
and breast milk
IgA
(dimer)
Secretory
component
J chain
Provides localized defense of mucous membranes by

agglutination and neutralization of antigens (see
Figure 43.19)
Presence in breast milk confers passive immunity on
nursing infant
IgE
(monomer)
IgD
(monomer)
Figure 43.18
Transmembrane
region
Triggers release from mast cells and basophils of

histamine and other chemicals that cause allergic
reactions (see Figure 43.20)
Present primarily on surface of naive B cells that have

not been exposed to antigens
Acts as antigen receptor in antigen-stimulated
proliferation and differentiation of B cells (clonal
selection)
Antibody-Mediated Disposal of Antigens

The binding of antibodies to antigens
Is also the basis of several antigen disposal
mechanisms
Leads to elimination of microbes by
phagocytosis and complement-mediated lysis
Antibody-mediated mechanisms of antigen disposal

Binding of antibodies to antigens
inactivates antigens by
Viral neutralization
(blocks binding to host)
and opsonization (increases
phagocytosis)
Agglutination of
antigen-bearing particles,
such as microbes
Precipitation of
soluble antigens
Complement
proteins
Bacteria
Virus
Activation of complement system

and pore formation
MAC
Pore
Soluble
antigens
Bacterium
Enhances
Phagocytosis
Figure 43.19
Macrophage
Foreign cell
Leads to
Cell lysis
Active and Passive Immunization

Active immunity
Develops naturally in response to an infection
Can also develop following immunization, also
called vaccination
In immunization
A nonpathogenic form of a microbe or part of a
microbe elicits an immune response to an
immunological memory for that microbe
Passive immunity, which provides immediate,

short-term protection
Is conferred naturally when IgG crosses the
placenta from mother to fetus or when IgA
passes from mother to infant in breast milk
Can be conferred artificially by injecting
antibodies into a nonimmune person
Concept 43.4: The immune systems ability to

distinguish self from nonself limits tissue
transplantation
The immune system
Can wage war against cells from other
individuals
Transplanted tissues
Are usually destroyed by the recipients
immune system
Blood Groups and Transfusions

Certain antigens on red blood cells
Determine whether a person has type A, B, AB,
or O blood
Antibodies to nonself blood types

Already exist in the body
Transfusion with incompatible blood

Leads to destruction of the transfused cells
Recipient-donor combinations
Can be fatal or safe
Table 43.1
Another red blood cell antigen, the Rh factor

Creates difficulties when an Rh-negative
mother carries successive Rh-positive fetuses
Tissue and Organ Transplants

MHC molecules
Are responsible for stimulating the rejection of
tissue grafts and organ transplants
The chances of successful transplantation are

increased
If the donor and recipient MHC tissue types
are well matched
If the recipient is given immunosuppressive
drugs
Lymphocytes in bone marrow transplants

May cause a graft versus host reaction in
recipients
Concept 43.5: Exaggerated, self-directed, or

diminished immune responses can cause
disease
If the delicate balance of the immune system is
disrupted
The effects on the individual can range from
minor to often fatal consequences
Allergies
Allergies are exaggerated (hypersensitive)
responses
To certain antigens called allergens
In localized allergies such as hay fever

IgE antibodies produced after first exposure to
an allergen attach to receptors on mast cells
The next time the allergen enters the body

It binds to mast cellassociated IgE molecules
The mast cells then release histamine and

other mediators
That cause vascular changes and typical
symptoms
The allergic response

IgE
Allergen
Histamine
3
2
Granule
Mast cell
1 IgE antibodies produced in 2 On subsequent exposure to the 3 Degranulation of the cell,
triggered by cross-linking of
response to initial exposure
same allergen, IgE molecules
adjacent IgE molecules,
to an allergen bind to
attached to a mast cell recogreleases histamine and other
receptors or mast cells.
nize and bind the allergen.
chemicals, leading to allergy
symptoms.
Figure 43.20
An acute allergic response sometimes leads to

anaphylactic shock
A whole-body, life-threatening reaction that can
occur within seconds of exposure to an
allergen
Autoimmune Diseases
In individuals with autoimmune diseases
The immune system loses tolerance for self
and turns against certain molecules of the
body
Rheumatoid arthritis
Is an autoimmune disease that leads to
damage and painful inflammation of the
cartilage and bone of joints
Figure 43.21
Other examples of autoimmune diseases

include
Systemic lupus erythematosus
Multiple sclerosis
Insulin-dependent diabetes
Immunodeficiency Diseases
An inborn or primary immunodeficiency
Results from hereditary or congenital defects
that prevent proper functioning of innate,
humoral, and/or cell-mediated defenses
An acquired or secondary immunodeficiency

Results from exposure to various chemical and
biological agents
Inborn (Primary) Immunodeficiencies

In severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID)
Both the humoral and cell-mediated branches
of acquired immunity fail to function
Acquired (Secondary) Immunodeficiencies

Acquired immunodeficiencies
Range from temporary states to chronic
diseases
Stress and the Immune System

Growing evidence shows
That physical and emotional stress can harm
immunity
Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS)

People with AIDS
Are highly susceptible to opportunistic
infections and cancers that take advantage of
an immune system in collapse
Because AIDS arises from the loss of helper T

cells
Both humoral and cell-mediated immune
responses are impaired
The loss of helper T cells

Results from infection by the human
immunodeficiency virus (HIV)
Figure 43.22
1m
The spread of HIV

Has become a worldwide problem
The best approach for slowing the spread of

HIV
Is educating people about the practices that
transmit the virus

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Chapter 43

The Immune System

PowerPoint Lectures for

Lectures by Chris Romero

Overview: Reconnaissance, Recognition, and

Two major kinds of defense have evolved that

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Acquired immunity, also called adaptive

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

A summary of innate and acquired immunity

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Natural killer cells

Concept 43.1: Innate immunity provides broad

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Certain cells of the mucous membranes

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

In the trachea, ciliated epithelial cells

Secretions of the skin and mucous membranes

Secretions from the skin

Internal Cellular and Chemical Defenses

Phagocytes, types of white blood cells

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Macrophages, a specific type of phagocyte

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

The lymphatic system

3 Within lymph nodes,

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

About 30 proteins make up the complement

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Major events in the local inflammatory response

Red blood cell

2 Fluid, antimicrobial proteins,

3 Chemokines released by various

4 Neutrophils and macrophages

Natural Killer Cells

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Invertebrate Immune Mechanisms

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Concept 43.2: In acquired immunity,

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

An antigen is any foreign molecule

A lymphocyte actually recognizes and binds

Antigen Recognition by Lymphocytes

The plasma membranes of both B cells

B Cell Receptors for Antigens

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

T Cell Receptors for Antigens and the Role of the MHC

Each T cell receptor

(b) A T cell receptor consists of one

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

T cells bind to small fragments of antigens

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Infected cells produce MHC molecules

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Depending on their source

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Class I MHC molecules, found on almost all

(a) Cytotoxic T cell

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Class II MHC molecules, located mainly on

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Newly formed lymphocytes are all alike

Blood, lymph, and lymphoid tissues