Low Cycle Fatigue (LCF)

High Cycle Fatigue (HCF)

What is Fatigue?
The ASTM definition.....
The process of progressive localized permanent structural change
occurring in material subjected to conditions which produce fluctuating
stresses and strains at some point or points and which may culminate in
crack or complete fracture after a sufficient number of fluctuations.

Translation:
Cyclic damage leading to local cracking or fracture.

Requirements have evolved for Gas Turbine Engines....

Emphasis today is on Cyclic Properties...
Design
Material
Time
Requirements
Properties
Historical

Basic Engineering
Properties

Strength,
Creep

1960s - 1970s

Add ... Fatigue

HCF, LCF, TMF

Late 1970s

Add ... Damage

Tolerance

Crack Growth

Emphasis today is on Cyclic Properties...

High Cycle Fatigue

Allowable vibratory stresses

Low Cycle Fatigue

8
8

Crack initiation life

1/1000 to small crack
8

Component

Safety inspection

Inspection size

retirement
Crack Growth

Remaining life from crack

interval
requirement

For Crack Initiation, High Cycle Fatigue

(HCF) and Low Cycle Fatigue (LCF) are
treated separately. Why?
General distinction for Gas Turbines:

HCF - Usually high frequency, due to resonant

vibration. Failure criteria based on allowable
stresses. Millions of Cycles

LCF - Usually low frequency, due to engine

start/stop or throttle cycles. Accurate life
prediction required. Thousands of Cycles

Turbine Disk Design Requirements

Most Severe Structural Challenge: High structural loads, fatigue, & creep
Environmentally friendly
Fatigue cracking resistance
initiation
propagation
Creep resistant
Strong
Lightweight
Predictable/Inspectable
Affordable
Environmentally stable
Nickel Superalloy Balances All Requirements

Combustor, Turbine Components

Present a Severe Thermal Fatigue Cracking Challenge

Mechanical fatigue, caused

by cyclic thermal strains
High temperature
accelerates fatigue damage
Exacerbated by crack tip
oxidation

Fatigue is a Major Challenge for Many Engine Components,

Including Fan Blades

Caused by Load Cycling

Occurs at cyclic loads well below
the Ultimate Strength
fatigue crack initiation site

High Cycle Fatigue (HCF)

Caused by vibration/flutter
Low Cycle Fatigue (LCF)
Caused by engine cycling

Compressor blade tested in

a vibratory fatigue test rig

Cyclic vs. Monotonic Curves: Behavior can be significantly different ...

From Metal Fatigue in Engineering, H.O. Fuchs and R.I. Stephens, John Wiley &
Sons, NY, 1980

Crack Size: How big is big? ...

HCF: S-N Curves ...

Initially used to address HCF for allowable

stress, but what about predicting actual cycles
of life? ...

HCF cycle prediction is more of a statistical

estimate with a large scatter allocation,
instead of an exact science

P&WA Stress Control HCF Test Apparatus

Specimen

Fully Reversed Stress/Strain Cycle

S/N Plot

Basic Cycle

Terms to Remember
Alternating Stress Amplitude:

Mean Stress:

max min
2

max min
2

min
max

Stress Ratio:

Stress Range:

max min

8Soderberg
8Goodman
8Gerber

(USA, 1930)

Se

(England, 1899)

(Germany, 1874)

Se

Sy

Su
2

m 1
Se Su

(Where Se is the fully reversed endurance limit.)

Cyclic Deformation Parameters: Fatigue loop illustration ...

Fatigue: How do HCF and LCF fit with

Stress vs. Life? ...

* Exists in theory only

HCF: S-N Curves ...

8 Fatigue Strength is the Maximum Stress that can

be repeatedly applied for a specified number of

cycles (typically 107) without failure. Titanium
alloys are curve fit to 109 cycles.

HCF: Notes on Approaches ...

8Soderberg

is highly conservative and seldom

used
8Actual

test data usually falls between

Goodman & Gerber Curves

8This

is not a large difference in the theories

when the mean stress is small in relation to
the alternating stress.

8P&W

has found the most success with the

Goodman approach

HCF: A Christienson Diagram Contains all of

this information ...

HCF: An example of Pratts Goodman

diagram which combines Stress Amplitude and
Mean Stress Effects ...

8The discontinuous slope on the x-axis modifies

for the yield value instead of the ultimate as

required by a traditional Goodman Diagram.

HCF: Cyclic limits ...

8107
8109

cycles - Most other alloys

cycles - Titanium, certain Nickel Blade
Alloys
8109 cycles - ????? (Proposed following the
HCF Initiative)
Why no actual 109 Testing?
8Present

frequency capability is 200 Hz,

which is 1.6 years!!

8Assuming

25 tests on two machines, this is

20 years to characterize a single material !!!

Target now is 2000 Hz for coupon testing,

which is 2 months for a single test.

HCF: Elastic Stress-Life Relationship ...

HCF Notches: Parameters of Interest ...

Parameter

Description

Kt
Concentration

Elastic Stress

Kf
Factor (KfKt)

Fatigue Notch

(related to grain size)

Material constant

Notch radius

Notch sensitivity

HCF Notches: Neuber proposed the

following relationship ...
Kf 1

Kf 1
Kt 1

Kt 1
1 / r

1
1 / r

Where:
Se(notched)=Se(unnotched) / Kf
8In

the previous equations, the notched value

would then be substituted.

LCF Testing: Verification ...

Three primary ways of verification testing:
8Subcomponents
8Spin

Pit

8Ferris

Wheel

P&WA Strain Control LCF/TMF Test Apparatus

LCF Testing: Typical set-up involves

uniaxial loading ...

Cyclic Fatigue: Testing Parameters of Interest ...

Strain Range

Stress Range

P/A = max - min

Max. Tensile Stress

Mean Stress

m = 0.5*(max + min)

Inelastic Strain

ei , ep

Temperature

Cyclic Loading: Key Relationships ...

Elastic Modulus,

Stress Ratio,

e tot e elastic e inelastic

ee

(monotonic) or

(cyclic)
e e

min
R
max
where

e inelastic e plastic e creep

Max. Stress,

max mean

Min. Stress,

min mean

Total Strain = Elastic Strain Range + Plastic Strain Range

e tot e e e p
Where

e tot

n '
e p 2

2K '

and

E
2 K '

1
n'

LCF: Pratt & Whitney Definition ...

8Nucleation

8Initiation

8The

to detectable crack.

is a 1/32 crack along the surface.

acceptable probability of occurrence of

an LCF crack as 1 crack occurring in a
sample size of 1000 (1/1000 or B.1) having
a 1/32 inch long crack at the predicted
minimum life.

LCF: Characteristics ...

8From

stress/strain cycling in the plastic

range at significantly higher stresses than for
HCF.

8The

stress/strain cycles that cause LCF

cracking are produced by significant engine
power level changes.

8Microscopic

changes in a material that has

been subjected to LCF cycling may be seen
after only a few cycles.
Microscopic dislocations in the crystal
structure.
The dislocations link up to form
cracks.
Depends on the stresses and
orientation of the individual grain.

8Highly

statistical in nature.

LCF: What are the parameters? ...

LCF: Mean Stress Effects must be included ...

8Simple

approach by J. Morrow:

e t 3.4

Su Sm N 0.12 e 0.6 N 0.6

E

8Alternative approach

by Smith, Watson &

Topper (1970):
max e a E f 2 N
2

2b

f e f E 2 N

b c

where max=m+ a and ea is the alternating strain

Notch LCF: Overall philosophy ...

8Kt < ~1.5
8Local stress-strain
8Smooth

calculated

LCF curves used

8Kt > ~1.5

8Local stress-strain
8Notch

calculated

LCF curves used usually mean

stress/strain range, temperature corrected

Notch LCF: Strain Range-Mean Stress

Curves ...

Strain Range,

Kt Kmax max Kt Kmin min

E max
E min

Where:
Kmax & Kmin are temp. correction factors on strain at max and min
stress points
K vs. T is derived from LCF tests at various temperatures
Kt is the geometric stress concentration factor
max & min are the nominal max and min stresses
Emax & Emin are elastic moduli at the max and min stress points

Notch LCF: Notch Factors ...

Kt, K, and Ke relate local behavior to nominal:

Notch LCF: Surface stresses and strains in

stress concentration areas are important
and need to be calculated ...
Three methods used most often:
8Linear Rule

- elastic equivalent stress

method
8Neuber Rule

- ideally for plane stress cases

8Glinka Method

- energy based method

Notch LCF: Linear Rule ...

Notch LCF: Neuber Rule ...

Notch LCF: Neuber Rule for Cyclic

Loading must be solved incrementally...

Reversed loading cyclic e curves assumes

kinematic hardening and relates e using cyclic
e curve with a 2X stress-strain multiplier
from the new reference origin.

Notch LCF: Glinka Relationship ...

Cumulative Damage: How is it done? ...

Definition - The means by which the damage
associated with a complex stress history may be
calculated or estimated by allowing the combining
cycles of different stress magnitudes.
Why is this needed?
8Military combat missions have many in-flight
throttle excursions.
8Reduce mission into major and minor (or sub)
cycles
8Major (Type I) cycle is the largest overall strain excursion
in the mission.
8Full power excursions from intermediate, or above, to idle
and back are called Type III cycles.
8These excursions generally impact the overall life.
8Excursions of smaller magnitude (Type IV) are generally
not damaging.*

* This may be untrue for some components

Cumulative Damage: Methodology ...

8Many different methods have been proposed
8Linear cumulative damage - Miners Rule - appears to do the

best job for the type of stress excursions encountered in jet

engine operation.
8Miners Rule states:

ni

Ni

Where:
Ni is life capability for stress excursion I
ni is the actual number of occurrences of excursion I
8The basic assumption is that fatigue damage is cumulative

and the life capability of a part will be exhausted when the

sum of the life fractions reaches 1.0

Cumulative Damage: Cycle counting using

the ASTM Rainflow technique determines
pairs ...

The pairs are A-D, B-C, E-F, and G-H.

Cyclic Stress-Strain Behavior: Derived from loci of cyclic endpoints ...

Constitutive Modeling Approach

3.5E+07
Constant 1

3.0E+07

Constant 2

Parameter

2.5E+07

Constant 3

2.0E+07
1.5E+07
1.0E+07
5.0E+06
0.0E+00
0

500

1000

1500

2000

Temperature (F)

Rate dependent test data

and model correlation

Model parameter temperature

dependencies

ANSYS analysis of
constitutive specimen

Constitutive Modeling Approach

specimen correlation

specimen prediction

component analysis

Understanding Metallurgical Aspects of Fatigue

Metallurgical Aspects...

Relevant Topics:
8 Crystal Structure
8 Deformation Mechanisms
8 Crack Initiation .. Sequence of Events
8 Visual Aspects - Fractography

Deformation for crystal structures can be visualized like a sliding row

of bricks...

Metals have a highly ordered crystal structure...

Cubic Arrangement

Hexagonal Close-Packed
Structure
Zn, Mg, Be, a-Ti, etc.

Two predominant deformation mechanisms in metals...

Dislocation: occurs at all temperatures,

but is predominant at lower temperatures.
Diffusion: important at higher temperatures,
especially above one half the melting temperature

Can you find the Illustrated Dislocation Defect?

Edge dislocation. (a) Bubble-raft model of an imperfection in a crystal structure.

Note the extra row of atoms. (b) Schematic illustration of a dislocation. [Bragg and
Nye, Proc. Roy. Soc. (London), A190, 474, 1947.]

Pure metals are easily deformed. Several methods are used to inhibit
deformation...

Dispersion strengthening
8 Solid solution strengthening
8 Precipitation hardening
8 Microstructure control (grain size and morphology, precipitate
control, etc.)

Solid Solution Strengthening: Perturbations to crystal lattice retard

dislocation motion...

Precipitation Hardening: Local areas of compositional and/or

structural differences retard dislocation motion...

Grain Boundary Strengthening: Crystallographic and/or

compositional boundary. Strengthens at low temperature; but weak
link at high temperature...

Grain Boundary Resistance: Will resist dislocation motion at the

boundary...

Grain Boundaries Illustrated: Notice the vacancies and excess atoms at boundaries...

Grain Boundary Mechanics:

Crystallographic and/or compositional boundary. Strengthens at low
temperature; weak link at high temperature...

Persistent Slip Band Formation:

A product of cyclic deformation important to fatigue initiation for ductile
metals ...

From Metal Fatigue in Engineering, H.O. Fuchs and R.I. Stephens, John Wiley
& Sons, NY, 1980

Diffusion: A high temperature deformation mechanism ...

Diffusion: Usually considered at temperatures above half the melting

point (K) ...
Melting Point (F) 1/2 Melting Point (F)
Aluminum

1220

379

Titanium

3035

1288

Nickel

2647

1094

Iron

2798

1170

Cobalt

2723

1132

32

-213

Ice

Grain Boundary Sliding: A diffusion controlled deformation process ...

Grain Boundary Sliding: Can provide large deformation at boundary with

relatively small intergranular deformation ...

Fatigue Crack Initiation: Occurs when enough local deformation

damage accumulates to produce a crack ...

from dislocations - as in slip

from diffusion - as in grain boundary sliding

or from both

Fracture Stages: Steps of an Idealized Fatigue Process ...

Stage I

Crystallographic Fracture, along a few planes, brittl

appearance, at angle to principal loading direction.

Stage II

Usually transgranular, but numerous fracture planes

to principal loading direction. Striations often seen at high
magnification for more ductile alloys.

Stage III Final fracture; brittle, ductile or both.

Fracture Stages: Fatigue origin often at a Mechanical or Metallurgical

Artifact ...

Schematic of stages I and II transcrystalline microscopic fatigue crack growth.

Typical Fatigue Fractures: Several Common Features ...

1.

Distinct crack initiation site or sites.

2.

Beach marks indicative of crack growth arrest.

3.

Distinct final fracture region.

Fatigue Features: Initiation sites . . .

Fatigue Features: Beach marks ...

Fatigue Features: Final Fracture ...

Final Fracture

Fatigue Area

Ramberg-Osgood Relationship: Describes cyclic inelastic behavior ...

IN100, (Tests Conducted in Air at 650C, Frequency, = 0.33 Hz)

Typical Failure Modes: General Characteristics ...

Failure Mode
Overstress

Some General Characteristics

Rapid fracture, may be ductile or brittle, large
deformation, often transgranular, often the final stage
of some other fracture mode.

Creep/Stress Rupture
Usually long term event, large deformation,
intergranular, elevated temperature
High Cycle Fatigue
transgranular

Often short term event, small deformation,

Low Cycle Fatigue

Moderate time event, moderate deformation, fracture
dependent on time/temp.
Thermomechanical Fatigue Moderate time event, subset of LCF with deformation
due largely to thermally induced stresses, fracture
usually shows heavy oxidation/alloy depletion

Cyclic Behavior Must be Modeled: After Tensile yield, there are two models
which describe compressive behavior ...

Isotropic

- assumes symmetrical behavior in tension and compression.

Kinematic

- assumes yield stress, following inelastic deformation, is degraded ...

Hardening Models: Defines the Bauschinger effect ...

Cyclic Effects on Stress-Strain Behavior: Progressive changes occur during cyclic

loading ...

Material: Copper in 3 Conditions

From Metal Fatigue in Engineering, H.O. Fuchs and R.I. Stephens, John Wiley &
Sons, NY, 1980

Summary:

Cyclic properties are important to our product.

Principal deformation mechanisms are slip at low temperature and diffusion

at high temperature.
8

Cracking can be crystallographic, transgranular, or intergranular.

Simple deformation models can be used to consolidate data and predict loca
stresses and strains.
8