Many components produced by primary manufacturing

processes need machining to get their final shape,

accurate size and good surface finish.
The term machining is used to describe various
processes which involve removal of material from the
workpiece
Definition of Machining (or Metal cutting)
Machining is an essential process of finishing by which
jobs are produced to the desired dimensions and surface
finish by gradually removing the excess material from the
preformed blank in the form of chips with the help of cutting
tool(s) moved past the work surface(s)

Importance of machining
The ever increasing importance of machining operations is
gaining new dimensions in the present industrial age

Competition towards
machined parts

the

Basic objectives of the

manufacturing practice are:

economical
economical

manufacture
and

of

efficient

1.Quick Metal Removal or MRR(Material Removal Rate)

2.High class surface finish
3.Economy in tool cost
4.Less power consumption
5.Economy in cost of replacement and sharpening of tools
6.Minimum lead time of machine tools

What is machine tool?

A machine tool is a machine for shaping or machining metal or other rigid

materials, usually by cutting, boring, grinding, shearing, or other forms of
deformation.
Machine tools employ some sort of tool that does the cutting or shaping.

CLASIFICATION OF CUTTING TOOLS

How cutting takes place?

For providing cutting action a relative motion between
the tool and work-piece is necessary.
This relative motion can be provided by:
1. Either keeping the workpiece stationary and moving
the tool Or
2. By keeping the tool stationary and moving the work Or
3. By moving both in relation to one another.

Factors effecting machining

Examples of Machining Processes

Examples of Machining Processes

Generating shape: (a) straight turning, (b) taper turning, (c) contour turning,
(d) plain milling, (e) profile milling

Examples of Machining Processes

Forming to create shape: (a) form turning, (b) drilling, and (c) broaching

Examples of Machining Processes

End Milling

Slab Milling

Diagrammatic Representation of Material Removal Operations

Cutting Parameters
RPM-N

Cutting Parameters

Cutting Speed: Cutting speed is the distance traveled by the work

surface in unit time with reference to the cutting edge of the tool.
The cutting speed, v is simply referred to as speed and usually
expressed in m/min. V= r= rx (2 N)/60= DN/1000 D in mm, N in
rpm
Feed: The feed is the distance advanced by the tool into or along the
workpiece each time the tool point passes a certain position in its
travel over the surface.
In case of turning, feed is the distance that the tool advances in one
revolution of the workpiece.
Feed f is usually expressed in mm/rev.
Feed in mm/min = Feed in mm/rev x N
Depth of cut : It is the distance through which the cutting tool is
plunged into the workpiece surface.
Thus it is the distance measured perpendicularly between the
machined surface and the unmachined (uncut) surface or the
previously machined surface of the workpiece.
The depth of cut d is expressed in mm.=(d1-d2)/2 for turning

Material Removal Rate

Volume of material removed per unit time

MRR vfd
Roughing(R)
f 0.4 1.25mm / rev
d 2.5 20mm
Finishing(F)
f 0.125 0.4mm / rev
d 0.75 2.0mm
v R v F
MRR= Volume removed/cutting time=mm3/min

Power required = MRR x Avg. unit power

Single point cutting tool

2 parts of the cutting tool: 1.Shank 2.Flank

3 Faces of shank: 1. Rake face 2.Principle flank face 3. Auxiliary flank face

2 cutting edges: 1. Principle cutting edge 2.Auxiliary cutting edge

 Shank: Main body of tool, it is part of tool which is gripped in tool

holder
Face: Top surface of tool b/w shank and point of tool. Chips flow
along this surface
Flank: Portion of tool which faces the work. It is surface adjacent
to & below the cutting edge when tool lies in a horizontal position
Point: Wedge shaped portion where face & flank of tool meet.
Base: Bearing surface of tool on which it is held in a tool holder.
Nose radius: Cutting tip, which carries a sharp cutting point.
Nose provided with radius to enable greater strength, increase
tool life & surface life.
Typical Value : 0.4 mm 1.6 mm

Tool Terminology
Side Rake
(SR), +

End Cutting
edge angle
(ECEA)
Facing
Cutting
edge

Nose
Radius

Clearance or end
relief angle

Back
Rake
(BR),+
Turning
Cutting
edge
Side relief
angle
Side cutting
edge angle
(SCEA)

Single point cutting tool Terminology

shank

(with primary cutting edge)

primary plan Approach angle or
primary cutting edge angle

Single point cutting tool

(with primary cutting edge at top)

Traditional tool replaced by inserts of carbide or other tool

materials of various shapes and sizes

Face

(Clearance angle)

Geometry of Positive rake single point cutting tool

Front view

FV

(Lip angle)

Side
view

(side clearance angle)

Top view

Rake Angles
Positive Rake

Negative Rake

Zero Rake

Geometry of Negative rake single point cutting tool

Nomenclature of Single Point Lathe Tool

The most significant terms in the geometry of a cutting tool angles are:

Rake angle
Back Rake angle
Side Rake angle

Relief or clearance angle

End relief
Side relief

Cutting edge angle

End Cutting edge angle
Side Cutting edge angle
-- Nose Radius

Rake Angle:

It is the angle formed between the face of the tool and a plane parallel
to its base
If this inclination is towards the shank, it is known as back rake or top
rake, when it is measured towards the side of the tool, it is called side
rake.
These rake angles guide the chips away from the cutting edge,
thereby reducing the chip pressure on the face and increasing the
keenness of the tool so that less power is required for cutting

An increased rake angle(+ve rake) will reduce the strength of the

cutting edge
Hence tools used for cutting hard metals are given smaller rake
angles where as those used for softer metals contain larger rakes.

Nagative rake:
If the face of the tool is so ground that it slopes upwards from the point it
is said to contain negative rake
It obviously reduces the keenness of the tool and increases strength of
the cutting edge
Such a rake is usually employed on carbide tipped tools when they are
used for machining extra hard surfaces like hardened steel parts and for
taking intermittent cuts
A tool with negative rake will have a larger lip angle, resulting in a
stronger tool
Favourable for tipped tools. Normally varies from 5 to 10 degrees.

Lip Angle(Wedge angle or Angle of keenness)

The Angle between the face and the flank of the tool is known as lip angle
Also called as Angle of keenness of the tool
Strength of the cutting edge is directly effected by this angle
Larger the lip angle , stronger will be the cutting edge and vice versa
Clearance angle remains constant in all the cases, lip angle varies
inversely as the rake angle

Hence, when harder metals are to be machined, a stronger tool is

required, the rake angle is reduced and consequently the lip angle is
increased. This simultaneously calls for reduced cutting speeds, which
is a disadvantage. Therefore, lip angle is kept as low as possible without
making the cutting edge so weak that it becomes unsuitable for cutting

Cutting-Tool Terms
Rake angle:
Ground on a tool to provide a smooth flow of the chip over the
tool so as to move it away from the work piece
Back Rake angle

Ground on the face of the tool

Influences the angle at which chip leaves the nose of the tool
Generally 8 100
Side Rake angle
Ground on the tool face away from the cutting edge
Influences the angle at which the chip leaves the work piece
A lathe tool has 140 side rake.

36

Cutting-Tool Terms Contd..

Side Rake
Large as possible to allow chips to escape
Amount determined
Type and grade of cutting tool
Type of material being cut
Feed per revolution
Angle of keenness
Formed by side rake and side clearance

37

Cutting-Tool Terms Contd..

Back Rake
Angle formed between top face of tool and top of tool
shank

Positive
Top face slopes downward
away from point

+ve

Negative
Top face slopes upward
away from point

Neutral

-ve

38

Cutting-Tool Terms Contd..

Negative Rake Tools
Typical tool materials which utilize negative rakes are:
Carbide
Diamonds
Ceramics(At high speeds)
These materials tend to be much more brittle than HSS but
they hold superior hardness at high temperatures.
The negative rake angles transfer the cutting forces to the tool
which help to provide added support to the cutting edge.

Cutting-Tool Terms Contd..

Relief or Clearance angle:
Ground on the end and side faces of a tool to
prevent it from rubbing on the work piece.
To enable only the cutting edge to touch the work
piece and cut freely without rubbing against the
surface of the job

Side Relief angle:

Angle ground directly below the cutting edge on
the flank of the tool

End Relief angle:

Angle ground from the nose of the tool

Cutting-Tool Terms Contd..

Cutting edge angle
Ground on a tool so that it can be mounted in the
correct position for various machining operations.
Side Cutting edge angle
Allows flank of the tool to approach the work piece first
Spreads the material over a greater distance on the cutting
edge, thereby thinning out the chip.
Approximately 150

End Cutting edge angle

Allows the cutting tool to machine close to the work piece
during turning operations
Usually 20 300

Cutting-Tool Terms Contd..

Nose Radius:

Rounded tip on the point of the tool

Functions:
Strengthens finishing point of tool
Improves surface finish on work
Should be twice amount of feed per revolution
Too large chatter;
Too small weakens point
Values: 0.4 mm to 1.6 mm

42

Tool signature
It is the system of designating the principal angles of a
single point cutting tool.
The signature is the sequence of numbers listing the
various angles, in degrees, and the size of the nose
radius.
The two systems widely used are:
1) ASA System
2) ORS System

The system most commonly us

ASA
(ASA), which
is:

The system most commonly used is American Standards Association (ASA)

Also called as Machine Reference System as the three planes for describing
the angles based on configuration and axes of machine tool

Bake rake angle, Side rake angle, E

cutting Edge angle, Side cutting Ed

The single point tool is designated as:

b - s - e - s - Ce - Cs - r
Bake rake angle
Side rake angle

End relief angle

Side relief angle,
End cutting Edge
Angle e

Side cutting
Edge angle
s

Nose radius

Tool signature (ASA)

Example:

A tool may designated in the following sequence:

8-14-6-6-6-15-1
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Bake rake angle is 8o

Side rake angle is 14o
End relief angle is 6o
Side relief angle is 6o
End cutting Edge angle is 6o
Side cutting Edge angle is 15o
Nose radius is 1 mm

MECHANISM OF CHIP FORMATION

Shear zone

Deformation of metal occurs along shear plane. However, in realistic model

the shear deformation occurs within a shear zone(Primary shear zone).
An other shear occurs due to friction between the chip and tool as the chip
slides along the rake face of the tool. This is referred as secondary shear
zone.
Another shear occurs between work and tool interface, which is called as
tertiary shear zone.
If machined at low cutting speed Shear zone is thick
If machined at high cutting speed Shear zone is thin

When the cutting tool is forced against the work, the metal layer
which is just ahead of tool is compressed.
If the tool is forced further, a condition will be reached in which
the stress exceeds ultimate shear strength of the given work
material.
This leads shear along the shear plane and cutting off the chip
from the workpiece.
With further movement of the tool, the new layer is compressed
and the cycle is repeated.
The chip formed in the metal cutting operations, undergoes
plastic deformation, it becomes shorter (chip contraction) and
cross-section increases
Due to contraction, the length of chip is shorter than the length of
the tool travel, along the surface of the work.

CHIP FORMATION
Tool will cut or shear off the metal, provided
1.Tool is harder than the work metal
2.Tool is properly shaped so that its edge can be effective in
cutting the metal
3.The tool is strong enough to resist the cutting pressures

4.Movement of the tool relative to the material or vice versa,

so as to make cutting action possiblec

TYPES OF CHIPS
The chips produced during machining can be broadly classified
as 3 types:
1.Continuous chips
2.Discontinuos chips or Segmental chips
3.Continuous chips with build-up edge

Continuous chips
Continuous chips are formed when machining ductile materials(low
carbon steel, mild steel, copper, aluminium etc) with a cutting tool of
large rake angle and sharp cutting edge.
Such a chip flows off the tool face in the form of a ribbon
The other favorable conditions which give rise to this type of chips are
High cutting speed
Small feeds and depth of cut
Low friction
Formation of continuous chips are desirable because a smooth
surface will be obtained. They also help in providing higher tool life and
lower power consumption
Long continuous chips can cause problems of chip disposal
These problem can be solved by providing chip breakers(step or
groove in the tool rake face) which allow the chips to be broken into
small pieces so they can be removed easily

Discontinuous Chips
This type of chip is produced when machining brittle material, such as
cast iron and bronze, with a cutting tool having low rake angle.
The following factors favours the formation of discontinuous chips

1.Low to medium cutting speed

2.Large feeds and depth of cut
3.Absence of cutting fluid

Chips are broken into small segments instead of plastic flow of chip
along tool face.

The discontinuous chips may also result if the material is ductile and the
coefficient of friction between chip and tool is very high.
The most of the heat generated is carried by the chip and hence the tool
is heated to a lower temperature. Thus the tool life is longer

Discontinuous Chips Contd..

Stages of formation of Discontinous chips

Continuous chips with BUE

Continuous chips with BUE are formed when machining ductile
metals with a cutting tool of smaller rake angle at lower cutting speed.
The other conditions which give rise to BUE are:

1.Higher values of feed and depth of cut

2.High friction
3.Poor lubrication
4.High cutting pressure and temperature in shear zone
These BUE eventually swept from the tool and remain attached to the
machined surface.
This causes poor surface finish of work surface.
Presence of build up edge increases power consumption.
However it increases tool life, and is not harmful while rough machining

Continuous chips with BUE

In machining ductile metals like steels with long chip-tool contact
length(small rake angle), lot of stress and temperature develops in the
secondary deformation zone at the chip-tool interface.
Under such high stress and temperature in between two clean
surfaces of metals, strong bonding may locally take place due to
adhesion similar to welding.
In ductile materials, with lower cutting speeds
small particles of cut chip adheres,
under the action of pressure and
temperature, to the face of the tool.

HOW BUE DEVELOPED?

Such bonding will be encouraged and accelerated if the chip-tool materials

have mutual affinity or solubility. The weldment starts forming as an embryo at

the most favourable location and thus gradually grows
With the growth of the BUE, the force, F also gradually increases due to
wedging action of the tool tip along with the BUE formed on it.
Whenever the force, F exceeds the bonding force of the BUE, the BUE is
broken or sheared off and taken away by the flowing chip.
Then again BUE starts forming and growing. This goes on repeatedly.

Effects of BUE
Effects of BUE formation

Formation of BUE causes several harmful effects, such as:

1. It unfavourably changes the rake angle at the tool tip causing
increase in cutting forces and power consumption
2. Repeated formation and dislodgement of the BUE causes fluctuation
in cutting forces and thus induces vibration which is harmful for the
tool, job and the machine tool.
3. Surface finish gets deteriorated
4. May reduce tool life by accelerating tool-wear at its rake surface by
adhesion

Cutting
speed

Feed

Rake Angle

Type of chip

Work
material

Continuous

Ductile

High

Small

Large

Continuous
with BUE

Ductile

Medium

High

Small

Discontinuous

Brittle

Low

High

Small

Chip Breakers
When carbide tipped tools are used for machining, because of
higher cutting speeds, due to high temperatures, the resulting chip
will be continuous, blue in colour and take the shape of a coil.
Such a chip, if not broken into parts and removed from the
surroundings of the metal cutting area, is likely to adversely effect
the machining results
1. It may adversely effect the tool life by spoiling the cutting edge,
creating crater and raising temperature
2.Its presence may lead to a poor surface finish on the workpiece
3.If the chip gets curled around the rotating workpiece and/or cutting tool,
it may be hazardous to the machine operator
4.If a large and continuous coil is allowed to be formed, it may engage
the entire machine and even the work place. It is quite dangerous
5.Very large coils offer a lot of difficulty in their removal

To prevent the adverse effects, chip breakers are used. These will break
the produced chips into small pieces
1.By control of tool geometry: Grinding proper back rake and side rake
according to the feeds and speeds to be used.
2.By obstruction method: By interposing a metallic obstruction in the path
of the coil
When a strict chip control is desired, some sort of chip breakers are used.

Step type

1.Groove type: Grinding a groove on the face of the tool, leaving small land
near the tip
2.Step type: Grinding a step on the face of the tool, adjacent to the cutting
edge
3.Secondary rake: Providing a secondary rake on the tool through
grinding, together with a small step

4.Clamp type: Very common with carbide tipped tools. Chip breaker is a
thin and small plate which is either brazed to or held mechanically on the
tool face

Groove type

Clamp type

Secondary rake

Cutting Models

Tool

workpiece

ORTHOGONAL GEOMETRY

Tool

workpiece

OBLIQUE GEOMETRY

Orthogonal and Oblique Cutting

The two basic methods of metal cutting using a single point tool
are the orthogonal (2 D) and oblique (3D).

Orthogonal cutting takes place when the cutting face of the tool is
90 degree to the line of action of the tool.
If the cutting face is inclined at an angle less than 90 degree to the
line of action of the tool, the cutting action is known as oblique.

Oblique

Orthogonal

Orthogonal and Oblique Cutting

Work

Work

Feed

Feed

Tool
Orthogonal cutting

Orthogonal Cutting:
The cutting edge of the tool remains
normal to the direction of tool feed or
work feed.
The direction of the chip flow velocity is
normal to the cutting edge of the tool.
Here only two components of forces are
acting: Cutting Force and Thrust Force. So
the metal cutting may be considered as a
two dimensional cutting.
Examples are: Parting off operation,
Broaching, Sawing
Shear force acts on smaller area.

Tool
Oblique cutting

Oblique Cutting:
The cutting edge of the tool remains inclined at an
acute angle to the direction of tool feed or work
feed.
The direction of the chip flow velocity is at an angle
with the normal to the cutting edge of the tool. The
angle is known as chip flow angle.
Here three components of forces are acting: Cutting
Force, Radial force and Thrust Force or feed force.
So the metal cutting may be considered as a three
dimensional cutting.
The cutting edge being oblique, the shear force acts
on a larger area and thus tool life is increased.
Examples are lathe turning, drilling, milling,
shaping etc.,
Shear force acts on larger area

Cutting Forces
Shaping

Fc= In the direction of cutting velocity

Turning-Lathe

Fc = Tangential to the rotation of shaft(cutting speed)

Ft = Thrust force or feed force

=opposite to the direction of feed
Fr = Radial force
= will tend to push the tool away from the work,
which may cause chatter

Fc=Cutting force, acting in vertical plane and is tangential to the work surface, Also
called tangential force or tangential feed force
Ft=Ff = Feed force or thrust force or axial feed force, acting in horizontal plane parallel
to the work axis
Fr= Radial force or radial feed force, also acting in the horizontal plane but along the
radius of the work piece i.e along the axis of the tool.
Turning

Ft=Ff

Fc

Turning Forces For Orthogonal Model

Velocity of
Tool relative to
workpiece V
WORKPIECE

FC Tangential 'Cutting' Force (67%)

DIRECTION OF ROTATION

Fr Radial
Force (6%)

Longitudinal F t
'Thrust' Force (27%)

'A'

'A'
CUTTING TOOL

DIRECTION OF FEED
Fc

Ft

Note: For the 2D Orthogonal Mechanistic

Model we will ignore the radial component

End view section 'A'-'A'

Cutting forces
The largest magnitude is the vertical
force Fc which in turning is larger than
feed force Ff, and Ft is larger than radial
force Fr.
For orthogonal cutting system Fr is
made zero by placing the face of cutting
tool at 90 degree to the line of action of
the tool.

Ft

Facing Forces For Orthogonal Model

DIRECTION OF ROTATION

Velocity of
Tool relative to
workpiece V

F C Tangential Force

WORKPIECE

'Cutting' Force

Fr Radia l Force
Thrust Force

FL
Longitudina l Force

CUTTING TOOL
DIRECTION OF FEED

Note: For the 2D Orthogonal Mechanistic

Model we will ignore the Longitudinal
component

End view

'Turning' Terminology
Standard Terms
D
N
rpm

Workpiece

Tool

d mm

feed
(mm/rev)

Beware, for turning: In the generalized

orthogonal model depth of cut (to) is f (the feed),
and width of cut (w) is d (the depth of cut)

N is the speed in rpm

D is the diameter of the
workpiece
f is the feed (linear
distance/rev)
d is the depth of cut
V is the surface speed
= pDN

Assumptions
(Orthogonal Cutting Model)

The cutting edge is a straight line extending perpendicular to the direction

of motion, and it generates a plane surface as the work moves past it.
The tool is perfectly sharp (no contact along the clearance face).
The shearing surface is a plane extending upward from the cutting edge.
The chip does not flow to either side
The depth of cut/chip thickness is constant uniform relative velocity
between work and tool
Continuous chip, no built-up-edge (BUE)

Schematic illustration of a two dimensional cutting process or orthogonal cutting

Orthogonal cutting with a well-defined shear plane, also known as the Merchant Model

Orthogonal cutting without a well defined shear plane

Orthogonal Cutting Model

(Simple 2D model)
tc

Chip thickness

Velocity V
Rake
Angle
+

Chip

tool
Tool

depth of cut

t0
Shear Angle

Clearance Angle
Workpiece

Mechanism: Chips produced by the shearing process along the shear plane

Elements of Metal Cutting

The outward flow of the metal causes the chip to be thicker after the
separation from the parent metal.
That is the chip produced is thicker than the depth of cut.

Heat Generation Zones

30% (Dependent on m)
(Dependent on ) 60%

Chip
Tool

Workpiece

10%
(Dependent on sharpness
of tool)

Experimental Determination of
Cutting Ratio
Shear angle may be obtained
either from photo-micrographs
(or) assume volume continuity
(no chip density change):

Lc
wc

tc

t0
w0

L0

Since t 0w 0L 0 = t cw cL c and w 0=w c (exp. evidence)

Cutting ratio , r = t 0 = L c
tc L0
i.e. Measure length of chips (easier than thickness)

Cutting Ratio
(or chip thicknes ratio)
Chip
a)
B

to

tool

tc

Workpiece
to
tc
As Sin =
and Cos-a) =
AB
AB
t0
sin
Chip thickness ratio (r) = =
tc cos(a)

Shear Angle

or

How (

- )?

At A, let the angle between AB

and vertical is x= 90 -
From triangle APB, angle A = 90 - +

t1
Chip thickness ration r = t
2

t1 h sin ,

So at B, 90-(90 - + )=

t2 h cos a )

t1
h sin
sin
r

t2 h cos a ) cos cos a sin sin a

r cos cos a r sin sin a sin
r cos cos a r sin sin a

1
sin
sin
r cos a
r sin a 1
tan
r cos a
tan
1 r sin a

P
C

Shear Plane Length and Angle

Chip
tool
B

to

a)

tc

Workpiece

t0
Shear plane length AB =
sin
-1 rc osa
She ar pl ane angl e () = Tan
1-rsi na

Adjust to minimize cutting force - Merchant

Velocity Relationships

Velocity Relationships

Vf= Velocity of chip flow relative to tool, directed along the tool face= chip flow velocity
Vc=Velocity of tool relative to work = cutting velocity
Vs=Velocity of displacement of the chip along the shear plane relative to work directed
along the shear plane = velocity of shear

Velocity Relationships

Vf
Vs

c
Vc

Analytically,
vf
vc
vs

sin(90 ( a )) sin sin(90 a )

vf
vc
v

s
cos( a ) sin cos a

vc sin
vf
cos( a )

v f vc r
vs

vc cosa
cos( a )

sin
r

cos(

a
)

Vf 90-

a
d
90-

Vs

90
Vc

Velocity diagram
Vs= Velocity of shear along shear plane
Vf= Chip flow velocity along the tool face
( frictional velocity)
parallel to face of the tool
Vc=Cutting velocity

t2
t1

Effect of Shear Angle

Higher shear plane angle means, smaller shear plane, which
means lower shear force, cutting forces, power, and temperature

(a)
(b)

Effect of shear plane angle :

(a) higher with a resulting lower shear plane area; and hence shear force, cutting force
and power
(b) smaller with a corresponding larger shear plane area.
Note that the rake angle is larger in (a), which tends to increase shear angle according
to the Merchant equation

Mechanics of Chip formation:

Forces Acting on Chip
Friction force F and Normal force to friction N
Shear force Fs and Normal force to shear Fn

Forces in metal cutting: (a)

forces acting on the chip in
orthogonal cutting

Fs
R

Fn

Equilibrium of Chip

Cutting Forces
(2D Orthogonal Cutting)
we know:
Tool geometry & type of
Workpiece material
Chip

Tool

and we wish to know:

Fn

Fs
R
R

Workpiece

N
Fc

Ft

Dynamometer

Free Body Diagram

Fc=
Ft =
F =
N =
Fs =
Fn=

Cutting Force
Thrust Force
Friction Force
Normal Force
Shear Force
Force Normal to Shear

Angle between R and N is

Resultant Forces
Vector addition of F and N = resultant R
Vector addition of Fs and Fn = resultant R'
Forces acting on the chip must be in balance:

R' must be equal in magnitude to R

R must be opposite in direction to R
R must be collinear with R
R = - R

Coefficient of Friction
Coefficient of friction between tool and chip: m

F
N

Friction angle related to coefficient of friction as follows:

m tan

Cutting Force and Thrust Force

F, N, Fs, and Fn cannot be directly measured
Forces acting on the tool that can be measured:
Cutting force Fc and Thrust force Ft

Forces acting on the tool that can be measured

The forces acting on the chip in orthogonal cutting

R/ N F

R FS F N

Fs = Shear Force, which acts along the shear plane, is the

resistance to shear of the metal in forming the chip.
Fn = Force acting normal to the shear plane, is the backing
up force on the chip provided by the workpiece.
F = Frictional resistance of the tool acting against the
motion of the chip as it moves upward along the tool.
N = Normal to the chip force, is provided by the tool.

It is assumed that the resultant forces R & Rare equal and opposite
in magnitude and direction.

Also they are Collinear. Therefore for the purpose of analysis the
chip is regarded as an independent body held in mechanical
equilibrium by the action of two equal and opposite forces R, which the
workpiece exerts upon the chip and R which the tool exerts upon the
chip.

Merchants Circle Diagram

Merchants circle diagram is convenient to determine the relation
between the various forces and angles.
In the diagram two force triangles have been combined and R and R
together have been replaced by R. The force R can be resolved into
two components Fc and Ft.
Fc and Ft can be determined by force dynamometers.

The rake angle () can be measured from the tool, and forces F and
N can then be determined.
The shear angle () can be obtained from its relation with chip
reduction coefficient. Now Fs & Fn can also be determined.

Chip

Tool

Fs
Clearance Angle

Fc
( - )

Work

Fn
Ft

M. Eugene
Merchant

R Fc Ft

The procedure to construct a merchants circle diagram

Chip
Fs

Fc

Work
R

Tool
Clearance Angle

Fn
Ft

The procedure to construct a merchants circle diagram

Set up x-y axis labeled with forces, and the origin in the
centre of the page. The cutting force (Fc) is drawn
horizontally, and the tangential force (Ft) is drawn
vertically. (Draw in the resultant (R) of Fc and Ft.
Locate the centre of R, and draw a circle that encloses
vector R. If done correctly, the heads and tails of all 3
vectors will lie on this circle.
Draw in the cutting tool in the upper right hand quadrant,
taking care to draw the correct rake angle () from the
vertical axis.
Extend the line that is the cutting face of the tool (at the Ft
same rake angle) through the circle. This now gives the
friction vector (F).
A line can now be drawn from the head of the friction
vector, to the head of the resultant vector (R). This gives
the normal vector (N). Also add a friction angle ()
between vectors R and N. Therefore, mathematically, R =
Fc + Ft = F + N.
Draw a feed thickness line parallel to the horizontal axis.
Next draw a chip thickness line parallel to the tool cutting
face.
Draw a vector from the origin (tool point) towards the
intersection of the two chip lines, stopping at the circle.
The result will be a shear force vector (Fs). Also measure
the shear force angle between Fs and Fc.
Finally add the shear force normal (Fn) from the head of
Fs to the head of R.
Use a scale and protractor to measure off all distances
(forces) and angles.

CHIP

Fc

Fs

TOOL

WORK
Fn

R
F

Merchants Circle Diagram

Chip

Tool

Fs

Fc

Clearance
Angle

( - )

Wor
k

Fn
Ft

Relationship of various forces acting on the chip with the horizontal and
vertical cutting force from Merchant circle diagram
Frictional Force System
D
C
(90-)
E

(90-) G

Fn

Tool

Work
R

Ft

Clearance
Angle

( - )

( - )

Ft

Fc

Fc

Chip
Fs

N
N
A

F OA CB CG GB ED GB
F FC sina Ft cosa
N AB OD CD OD GE
N FC cosa Ft sina

The coefficient of friction

F
m tan
N
Where Friction angle

Relationship of various forces acting on the chip with the horizontal and
vertical cutting force from Merchant circle diagram
Shear Force System
B

A
(90-)

Fc

Fs

Fc

Fn
R

Tool

Work

Ft

Clearance
Angle

( - )

(90-)

Ft

( - )

Fn D

Chip
Fs

FS OA OB AB OB CD
FS FC cos Ft sin
FN AE AD DE BC DE
FN FC sin Ft cos

Also:

FN FS tan( a )

Relationship of various forces acting on the chip with the horizontal and
vertical cutting force from Merchant circle diagram

Chip
Fs

Fc

Wor
k

Fn
R

Tool
Clearance
Angle

( - )

Ft

F FC sina Ft cos a
N FC cos a Ft sina
FS FC cos Ft sin
FN FC sin Ft cos
FN FS tan( a )

Power required in Metal cutting

The Power consumed/ work done per sec in cutting:

The Power consumed/ work done per sec in shear:

The Power consumed/ work done per sec in friction:

PC FC vC
Ps Fs vs

PF F v f

The total Power required:

P Power supplied by the motor

P Work consumedin cutting per sec work spent in feeding per sec
P Fc vc Ft feed velocity
In comparison to the cutting velocity the feed velocity is very nominal. Similarly Fc
is very small compared to Fc. So the work spent in feeding can be considered
negligible.
Therefore, total power required in cutting

P Pc Ps Pf

Shear Area (As) = OA AC

Chip

= (t1 / Sin ) w
= w t1/ Sin

Shear Area

C
B

Tool

t1A

O
Work

Specific Energy
Specific Energy, ut ,is defined as the total energy per unit volume of
material removed.

FC vc
FC
ut

wt 0 vc wt 0
Therefore is simply the cutting force to the projected area of cut.
If uf and us be specific energy for friction and specific energy for
shearing , then

Fv f

Fs vs
Fr Fs vs
ut u f us

wt0vc wt0vc wt0 wt0vc

As the rake angle increases, the frictional specific energy remains

more or less constant, where as the shear specific energy rapidly
reduced.

Approximate specific-energy requirements in cutting operations.

SPECIFIC ENERGY*
W-s/mm3
hp-min/in3
Aluminum alloys
0.4-1.1
0.15-0.4
Cast irons
1.6-5.5
0.6-2.0
Copper alloys
1.4-3.3
0.5-1.2
High-temperature alloys
3.3-8.5
1.2-3.1
Magnesium alloys
0.4-0.6
0.15-0.2
Nickel alloys
4.9-6.8
1.8-2.5
Refractory alloys
3.8-9.6
1.1-3.5
Stainless steels
3.0-5.2
1.1-1.9
Steels
2.7-9.3
1.0-3.4
Titanium alloys
3.0-4.1
1.1-1.5
* At drive motor, corrected for 80% efficiency; multiply the energy
by 1.25 for dull tools.
MATERIAL

Source Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th edition,

Kalpakjian, Schmid, Prentice Hall 2003

Theory of Ernst and Merchant (1944)

Ernest and Merchant gave the relation

1
( a )
4 2
M. Eugene Merchant

Assumptions of the theory:

Tool edge is sharp.
The work material undergoes deformation across a thin
shear plane.
There is uniform distribution of normal and shear stress
on the shear plane.
The work material is rigid and perfectly plastic.
The shear angle adjusts itself to give minimum work.
The friction angle remains constant and is
independent of .
The chip width remains constant.

Theory of Ernst and Merchant (1944)

Fs R cos( a )
R Fc sec( a )
Fs Fc sec( a ) cos( a )

Fc

Fs
As

wt0
where, As
sin
Fc sec( a ) cos( a )
s
wt0
sin
Fc sec( a ) cos( a ) sin
s
wt0

Chip
Fs

Ft

Tool
Clearance
Angle

( - )
Fn

Work
R ( a )

They have assumed that adjusts itself to give minimum work. And for a given set of
cutting condition, to, w and are all constants. They also assumed that is
independent of .

Theory of Ernst and Merchant (1944)

s or minimizeFc
We can either
maximize in the above equation the term
cos( a ) sin
Therefore
contains only one variable .
Fc

let y cos( a ) sin

dy
sin( a ) sin cos( a ) cos
d
for maximum value of y

tan( a ) cot
a p

Tool

Wor
k

Fn
R

Ft

Clearance
Angle

( - )

dy

0
d
sin( a ) sin cos( a ) cos
tan( a ) tan(p

Chip
Fs

1
( a )
2

Experimental verification revealed that the above equation is an

4
over estimate.
Merchant later modified this equation and gave another equation
2 a C
p
C
depends upon the work materials.
Where C is the machining constant. Usually
2
According to Merchant, C is a property of work material unaffected by cutting conditions, but grain
size and micro structure have an affect on C.

Merchants second solution (Modified Merchants Theory)

Merchant attempted an alternative solution assuming that the effect of deformation and friction are
reflected through a change of normal force Fn, acting in a direction perpendicular to the plane of shear.
In turn the normal stress, n, of the shear plane affects the shear stress, s, in the direction of shear.
It was assumed that s 0 k n this is commonly known as Bridgemans relation and k is the slope of
s- n characteristic

s 0 k n (1)

From the Merchant Circle diagram Relation

We Know Fn Fs tan( a )

Slope
k

Dividing by the area of the shear plane, we get

n s tan( a ) (2)

Fc

Tool

Wor
k

Fn

0
s
(3)
1 k tan( a )
F sec( a ) cos( a ) sin
We Know, s c
(4)
From equation (3) and (4), we get Fc

( - )

From equation (1) and (2), we get

s 0 k s tan( a )

w t0

Chip
Fs

Ft

w t0 cos( a )
cos( a ) sin 1 k tan( a )

Merchants second solution (contd..)

From principle of minimun energy, Fc is minimum, when denominator is maximum.

Therforeif y cos( a ) sin 1 k tan( a )

y cos( a ) sin k sin( a ) sin

dy
0
d
cos( a ) cos sin( a ) sin k sin( a ) cos k cos( a ) sin
cos( a ) cos sin( a ) sin
k sin( a ) cos cos( a ) sin

cos(2 a ) k sin(2 a )
cot(2 a ) k
2 a cot1 k C
2 a C
where C is machining constant

Stress and Strain acting on the chip

Mean shear stress s

Fs
As

Mean normal stress s

Fn
As

The shear strain be .

Considerin g no loss of work during shearing
We Know,
Work done in shearing unit volume of the metal shear stress shear strain

Fs v s
s
t0 w vc

Fs v s
s t0 w vc
Fs v s
Fs
t0 w vc
As
Fs v s

Fs
t0 w vc
t0 w
sin
v
1
s
v c sin
But

vs
cosa

, therefore
v c cos( a )

cosa
cos( a ) sin

Stress and Strain acting on the chip (contd..)

The magnitude of shear strain
AE A / E
tan ABE tan A BE

BE
BE
/

AE A / E

BE
BE
A / BE 90 ( 90 ) a a
cot tan( a )

cos sin( a )

sin cos( a )

cos cos( a ) sin sin( a )

sin cos( a )

cos( a )
sin cos( a )

cos a
sin cos( a )

Chip

D/
C

Work

(-)

A/

Tool

(90-)

Shearing of chip

 Brief introduction to Merchants Circle.

Assumptions for Merchants Circle Diagram.
Construction of Merchants Circle.
Solutions of Merchants Circle.

Advantages of Merchants Circle.

Need for the analysis of cutting forces.
Limitations of Merchants Circle.
Conclusion

 Merchants Circle Diagram is

constructed to ease the analysis of
cutting forces acting during
orthogonal (Two Dimensional)
cutting of work piece.
Ernst and Merchant do this
scientific analysis for the first time
in 1941 and gives the following
relation in 1944

It is convenient to determine
various force and angles.

 : Rack angle

Fc: Cutting Force

: Frictional angle

Fs: Shear Force

: Shear angle

F: Frictional Force

Ft : Thrust Force

N: Normal Frictional Force

Fn: Normal Shear Force

V: Feed velocity

Fs

Fn
Fc

Ft
F
N

Side Rake Angle

Back Rake Angle

Front View

RAKE ANGLE
Back Rake Angle: It is the angle
between the face of the tool and
measured in a plane perpendicular
to the side cutting edge
Side Rake Angle: It is the angle
between the face of the tool and
measured in a plane perpendicular
to the base

Friction Force
Resisting force acted at the tool
workpiece interface to resist the
motion of tool.

Cutting Force
Force acted along the velocity of
tool

Cutting force increases as speed

increases and decreases as rake
angle decreases
Normal Friction Force
It act at the tool chip interface
normal to the cutting face of the tool
and is provided by the tool.

Fs

Fn
Fc

Ft
F
N

Normal Shear Force

Force on the chip provided by the
workpiece. Acts normal to the shear
plane.
Shear Angle
It is the angle made by the shear
plane with the direction of the tool
travel.
Shear Force
Resistance to shear of the metal in
forming the chip. It acts along the
shear plane.
Thrust Force
This force acts normal to the
cutting force or the velocity of the
tool.

N
R

P
F

Frictional Angle
It is the angle between the
resultant ,of the Frictional Force &
Normal
Force,
and
Normal
Reaction.
-1

= tan
: coefficient of friction

 Tool edge is sharp.

The work material undergoes deformation across a
thin shear plane.
There is uniform distribution of normal and shear
stress on shear plane.
The work material is rigid and perfectly plastic.
The shear angle adjusts itself to minimum work.
The friction angle remains constant and is
independent of .
The chip width remains constant.
The chip does not flow to side, or there is no side
spread.

Fs

Fn
Fc
Ft

R
F
N

Force circle to determine various forces acting in the cutting zone.

 Fs , Resistance to shear of the metal in forming the chip. It

acts along the shear plane.

Fn , Backing up force on the chip provided by the

workpiece. Acts normal to the shear plane.
N, It at the tool chip interface normal to the cutting face of
the tool and is provided by the tool.
F, It is the frictional resistance of the tool acting on the chip.
It acts downward against the motion of the chip as it glides
upwards along the tool face.

Force Circle Diagram

(Merchants Circle)

Fs

Tool

Fc

a
F
n

F
t

a
R

a
F
a

 Fs , Resistance to shear of the metal in forming the chip. It

acts along the shear plane.

Fn , Backing up force on the chip provided by the

workpiece. Acts normal to the shear plane.
N, It at the tool chip interface normal to the cutting face of
the tool and is provided by the tool.
F, It is the frictional resistance of the tool acting on the chip.
It acts downward against the motion of the chip as it glides
upwards along the tool face.

Force Circle Diagram

(Merchants Circle)

Fs

Tool

Fc

a
F
n

F
t

a
R

a
F
a

Knowing Fc , Ft , and , all other component forces

can be calculated as:

The coefficient of friction will be then given as :

Fs

Fn
On Shear plane,

Fc
Ft

Now,

R
F
N

Now the shear force can be written as:

Fs

and

Fn
Fc
Ft

Assuming that is independent of ,

for max. shear stress

R
F

Let be the shear angle

Where,

Fs

Now shear plane angle

Fn
Fc
The average stresses on the
shear plane area are:

Ft

R
F

Results from
Force Circle Diagram
(Merchant's Circle)
Friction Force F = Fcsina + Ftcosa
Normal Force N = Fccosa - Ftsina
m = F/N and m = tan typically 0.5 - 2.0)

Shear Force Fs = Fccos - Ftsin

Force Normal to Shear plane F n = F csin + F tcos

Analysis of cutting forces is helpful as:-

Design of stiffness etc. for the machine tolerance.

Whether work piece can withstand the cutting force
can be predicted.
In study of behavior and machinability
characterization of the work piece.
Estimation of cutting power consumption, which
also enables selection of the power source(s) during
design of the machine tool.
Condition monitoring of the cutting tools and
machine tool.

Proper use of MCD enables the followings :-

Easy, quick and reasonably accurate determination

of several other forces from a few forces involved in
machining.
Friction at chip-tool interface and dynamic yield
shear strength can be easily determined.

Equations relating the different forces are easily

developed.

Some limitations of use of MCD are :-

Merchants Circle Diagram (MCD) is valid only for

orthogonal cutting.
By the ratio, F/N, the MCD gives apparent (not
actual) coefficient of friction.
It is based on single shear plane theory.

Forces on the Cutting Tool

and the workpiece

Importance: Stiffness of tool holder, stiffness of machine, and

stiffness of workpiece must be sufficient to avoid significant
deflections (dimensional accuracy and surface finish)
Primary cause: Friction force of chip up rake face + Shearing
force along shear plane
Cutting speed does not effect tool forces much (friction forces
decrease slightly as velocity increases; static friction is the
greatest)
The greater the depth of cut the greater the forces on the tool
Using a coolant reduces the forces slightly but greatly
increases tool life

Stresses
On the Shear plane:

Fn
Fnsin
Normal Stress = s = Normal Force / Area =
=
AB w
tow
Fs
Fssin
Shear Stress = s = Shear Force / Area =
=
AB w
tow
Note: s = y = yield strength of the material in shear

On the tool rake face:

N
= Normal Force / Area =
(often assume tc = contact length)
tc w
= Shear Force / Area =

F
tc w

Shear Strain

Orthogonal Cutting
r

to
ls sin

tc ls cos( a )

r cos a
tan
1 r sin a
AC AD DC

tan( a ) cot
BD
BD

Power
Power (or energy consumed per unit time) is the product of
force and velocity. Power at the cutting spindle:
Cutting Power Pc = FcV
Power is dissipated mainly in the shear zone and on the rake
face:
Power for Shearing Ps = FsVs
Friction Power Pf = FVc

Actual Motor Power requirements will depend on machine

efficiency E (%):
Pc
Motor Power Required =
x 100
E

Material Removal Rate (MRR)

Material Removal Rate (MRR) =

Volume Removed
Time

Volume Removed = Lwto

Time to move a distance L = L/V

Lwto
Therefore, MRR =
= Vwto
L/V
MRR = Cutting velocity x width of cut x depth of cut

Specific Cutting Energy

(or Unit Power)
Energy required to remove a unit volume of material (often quoted as
a function of workpiece material, tool and process:
Ut =

Energy
Energy per unit time
=
Volume Removed Volume Removed per unit time

Cutting Power (Pc)

FcV
Fc
Ut =
=
=
Material Removal Rate (MRR) Vwto wto
FsVs
Specific Energy for shearing Us =
Vwto

FVc
Fr
Specific Energy for friction Uf =
=
Vwto
wto

Specific Cutting Energy

Decomposition
1.

Shear Energy/unit volume (Us)

(required for deformation in shear zone)

2.

Friction Energy/unit volume (Uf)

(expended as chip slides along rake face)

3.

Chip curl energy/unit volume (Uc)

(expended in curling the chip)

4.

Kinetic Energy/unit volume (Um)

(required to accelerate chip)

Specific Cutting Energy

(or Unit Power)
Energy required to remove a unit volume of material (often quoted as
a function of workpiece material, tool and process:
Ut =

Energy
Energy per unit time
=
Volume Removed Volume Removed per unit time

Cutting Power (Pc)

FcV
Fc
Ut =
=
=
Material Removal Rate (MRR) Vwto wto
FsVs
Specific Energy for shearing Us =
Vwto

FVc
Fr
Specific Energy for friction Uf =
=
Vwto
wto

Relation between Pressure and

Cutting velocity

Effect of Rake angle on Cutting

Force

Average Unit Horsepower Values

of Energy per unit volume

Typical Orthogonal Model

Violations

Geometry and form Violations (i.e. non zero angles of

inclination, not sharp - radiused end)

Shear takes place over a volume (not a line or plane)

Cutting is never a purely continuous process (cracks develop

in chip; material not homogeneous)

'Size Effect' - larger stresses are required to produce

deformation when the chip thickness is small (statistical
probability of imperfection in the shear zone)

BUE - some workpiece material 'welds' to the tool face

(cyclic in nature)